Book Review: "Authoring a PhD: How to Plan, Draft, Write, and Finish a Doctoral Thesis or Dissertation" by Patrick Dunleavy

 

Book Review: "Authoring a PhD: How to Plan, Draft, Write, and Finish a Doctoral Thesis or Dissertation" by Patrick Dunleavy

Book Review: "Authoring a PhD: How to Plan, Draft, Write, and Finish a Doctoral Thesis or Dissertation" by Patrick Dunleavy

Introduction:

Patrick Dunleavy's "Authoring a PhD" is a comprehensive resource for doctoral students beginning the process of writing their thesis or dissertation. With a focus on planning, drafting, writing, and completing this monumental academic project, Dunleavy offers invaluable insights and practical help for navigating the challenges of the research process. 

Summary:

Dunleavy begins by discussing the fundamentals of PhD preparation, emphasizing the need of setting specific goals and managing time effectively. He then digs into the complexities of writing a research proposal, including approaches for refining research questions and developing a strong conceptual framework. Throughout the book, Dunleavy provides strategic advice on chapter structure, data management, and staying on track while "Authoring a PhD".

Key Themes:

Strategic Planning: Dunleavy emphasizes the significance of strategic planning in every stage of the PhD journey, from formulating research questions to structuring the final document.

Effective Writing Practices: The book provides practical advice on honing writing skills, including tips for improving clarity, coherence, and argumentation.

Time Management: Recognizing the demands of doctoral research, Dunleavy offers strategies for managing time effectively and maintaining productivity.

"Authoring a PhD"

How to plan, draft, write and finish a doctoral thesis or dissertation Patrick Dunleavy

All rules for study are summed up in this one: learn only in order to create. Friedrich Schelling

Contents

Preface

Michael Oakeshott, a conservative political philosopher, once argued that a university is an association of people who are locally situated and are involved in caring for and attending to the entire intellectual capital that constitutes civilization. It is concerned not only with preserving an intellectual inheritance, but also with continuously recovering what has been lost, restoring what has been neglected, gathering what has been dispersed, repairing what has been corrupted, reconsidering, reshaping, reorganizing, making more understandable, reissuing, and reinvesting. 

Oakeshott defines a university as a community tasked with preserving and enhancing civilization's intellectual heritage.

He emphasizes the importance of not just maintaining this inheritance but also actively recovering, restoring, and improving it.

The concept of a "knowledge society" challenges the exclusivity of universities in intellectual stewardship.

Dunleavy's book aims to aid individuals, especially research students, in producing substantial non-fiction works, particularly doctoral dissertations.

It acknowledges the uniqueness of each dissertation while advocating for the acquisition of generic authoring skills across disciplines.

Despite traditionalist criticisms, Dunleavy argues for the importance of systematic training in planning, drafting, and completing a thesis.

He traces the tradition of scholarly reflection on education and research back through history, emphasizing the need for adaptation to modern conditions.

While recognizing the personal and varied nature of the dissertation process, Dunleavy believes systematic guidance can be valuable.

He encourages readers to personalize their approach to his advice and acknowledges his debt to colleagues and students for their contributions.

Dunleavy invites feedback and aims for his book to contribute positively to the development of scholars and supervisors in the humanities and social sciences.

1. Becoming an author

In writing a problem down or airing it in conversation we let its essential aspects emerge. And by knowing its character, we remove, if not the problem itself, then its secondary, aggravating characteristics: confusion, displacement, surprise. Alain de Botton 

Authoring process involves envisioning, planning, drafting, revising, and publishing.

De Botton's idea suggests that understanding the essence of a problem helps resolve it.

Dunleavy aims to illuminate common authoring problems and offer solutions.

Authoring skills are crucial at the doctoral level, applicable across humanities and social sciences.

The text discusses authoring tasks in traditional and newer models of PhD education.

Managing readers' expectations is a foundational skill emphasized for effective authorship.

Authoring is more than just writing 

Authoring is more than just writing To write is to raise a claim to be read, but by whom? C. Wright Mills 

Authoring at the doctoral level entails becoming a proficient academic writer with a diverse skill set.

These skills are essential for crafting a coherent thesis, meeting criteria for originality, and timely completion.

Despite their importance, authoring skills are often neglected in doctoral education, with emphasis placed on research and discipline-specific training.

The conventional approach assumes that students will learn writing skills through trial and error and mentorship from supervisors.

However, this informal approach can be problematic and time-consuming, leading to delays in completing the thesis.

Dunleavy advocates for a more systematic approach to teaching authoring skills, believing that they contribute significantly to doctoral success.

He suggests that around 40 to 50 percent of success in completing a doctorate is determined by authoring skills.

While research ideas and disciplinary knowledge are crucial, developing authoring abilities is essential for sustaining progress and completing the thesis.

Dunleavy argues that authoring skills are relatively generic and applicable across various disciplines at the doctoral level.

Different models of PhD and the tasks of authoring 

Different models of PhD education have varying requirements and approaches to authoring.

The classical model typically involves a "big book" thesis supervised by one or two individuals, prevalent in European and British universities.

In this model, the supervisor plays a significant role in guiding the student's research and writing efforts.

Coursework is increasingly important in the classical model, with some universities adopting a more collective supervision approach.

The classical model culminates in a lengthy, integrated thesis, demanding high levels of authoring skills.

Conversely, the taught PhD model includes coursework followed by a papers model dissertation, common in American universities.

The papers model dissertation comprises several papers of publishable quality, reflecting a shift away from the traditional "big book" thesis.

This approach is prevalent in technical and mathematical social sciences.

Not all taught PhDs follow the papers model; some include a major dissertation in addition to coursework and exams.

The professional doctorate extends coursework over a longer period, with a possible option to forgo a traditional dissertation in favor of smaller papers or projects.

Students pursuing professional doctorates may face challenges balancing coursework with authoring demands.

Managing readers’ expectations

Managing readers’ expectations The book speaks only to those who know already the kind of thing to expect from it and consequently how to interpret it. Michael Oakeshott, about cookery books 

A book, like a landscape, is a state of consciousness varying with readers. Ernest Dimnet 

Producing a PhD involves writing a longer piece of work than most have undertaken before, with "big book" theses potentially reaching up to 100,000 words.

The length and complexity of a PhD thesis can pose challenges for both authors and readers.

Authors need to consider how readers will interpret their text, particularly in terms of managing expectations and ensuring clarity.

Writing with readers in mind helps authors develop their ideas, improve clarity, and increase the likelihood of publication.

In academic writing, including a literature review and positioning one's research within the scholarly landscape is crucial for managing readers' expectations.

Authors should be cautious about overly criticizing previous research, as this can set high expectations for their own work to surpass.

Academic differentiation, such as using labels, jargon, and taking sides in debates within the discipline, can shape readers' expectations and understanding of the text.

Managing readers' expectations requires authors to carefully consider both explicit and implicit signals in their writing regarding their intentions and their work's relationship to the discipline.

Conclusions

Embarking on a Ph.D. dissertation marks the start of an apprenticeship not only in your academic discipline and research skills but also in authoring.

Authoring skills are often overlooked but are crucial for success in completing the thesis.

Developing authoring skills is essential for progressing through your academic career.

Managing readers' expectations is a fundamental aspect of authoring, ensuring that the text is coherent, well-paced, and delivers on its promises.

Defining the central research question is a critical step for new Ph.D. students in beginning to manage readers' expectations effectively.

2. Envisioning the thesis as a whole 

In dreams begin responsibility. W. B. Yeats 

The dissertation starts with fundamental questions about its purpose, contribution, and justification of time and resources.

These questions remain relevant throughout the research process, resurfacing during different stages such as fieldwork, data collection, and drafting.

It's crucial to think through these questions before committing to a specific research topic and approach.

Defining clear research questions that will guide the project is essential.

The dissertation should aim to contribute something new or different to the field of study.

Originality and interest are key aspects of successful research.

Defining the central research questions 

Certain books seem to have been written, not in order to afford us any instruction, but merely for the purpose of letting us know that their authors knew something. Johanne Wolfgang von Goethe 

Doctorate as Contract: Doctoral research represents a contractual agreement where the author poses a question and provides an answer, with the dissertation acting as the fulfillment of this contract.

Question-Answer Alignment: Success hinges on the alignment between the posed question and the provided answer, ensuring a coherent and focused research endeavor.

Avoiding Pitfalls: Common pitfalls include offering vague materials, disconnected answers, or answers that do not align with the posed question, which can lead to perceived problems with the thesis.

Protection and Certainty: The contract provides students with protection and certainty, as examiners must assess based on the candidate's question, ensuring legitimacy and relevance to existing literature and debates.

Defining Own Question: Doctoral students transition from having questions defined externally to defining and answering their own questions, requiring a shift in perspective and understanding.

Choosing Appropriate Questions: Doctoral candidates must avoid tackling overly ambitious or excessively narrow questions, recognizing the limitations of lone-scholar, no-budget research compared to professional research environments.

Avoiding Defensive Topics: Defensive topics chosen solely to secure academic advancement may lack significance and fail to engage a broader readership, leading to narrow, uninspired research.

Gap-Filling Theses: Theses focused solely on filling gaps in the literature without broader intellectual contributions risk being devalued and overshadowed by subsequent research efforts.

Long-Term Impact: The choice of dissertation topic can significantly impact future academic opportunities and publication prospects, with dull or unfashionable subjects hindering professional advancement.

It’s no good running a pig farm for thirty years while saying ‘I was meant to be a ballet dancer’. By that time pigs are your style. Quentin Crisp

Psychological Effects of Topic Selection: Choosing a boring or overly narrow topic for manageability reasons can amplify morale slumps during the doctoral journey, making it harder to maintain momentum and confidence.

Importance of Personal Interest: Genuine interest and commitment to the thesis question are essential for sustaining motivation and overcoming challenges, emphasizing the significance of personal investment in the research topic.

Communication Challenge: Explaining the thesis topic succinctly, especially in social settings, can serve as a valuable exercise in clarifying one's own thinking and justifying the relevance of the research to others.

Personalized Approach: A successful PhD thesis should reflect a personalized perspective on existing literature, tailoring the research question to be distinctive and less likely to be duplicated by others.

Framing the Thesis: It's advisable to frame the thesis around an intellectual problem or paradox rather than merely filling a gap in the literature, focusing on phenomena that demand explanation and formulating an interesting answer.

Components of an Intellectual Problem: An intellectual problem comprises a goal or objective, an initial state, operations to change the state, constraints, and an outcome, emphasizing the systematic approach to addressing research questions.

Search for 'Une Problématique': In French doctoral education, the concept of 'une problématique' signifies framing the thesis question within a framework that highlights its intellectual significance, akin to 'problematizing' the research question in English terminology.

Father Brown laid down his cigar and said carefully, ‘It isn’t that they can’t see the solution. It is that they can’t see the problem.’ G. K. Chesterton 

Most problems people face cannot be specified with such exactness. And often people do not simply face given problems; their task is to make a problem, to find one in the inchoate situation they face. Robert Nozick 

Challenge of Problematizing Topics: Students from empiricist backgrounds may struggle to see their thesis topics as puzzles or enigmas, viewing them as straightforward empirical landscapes to explore rather than intellectual problems to solve.

Risks of Unproblematized Topics: Choosing an unproblematized topic can lead to derivative or conventionally framed subjects that lack intellectual focus or protection during examination, raising questions about the purpose of the thesis.

Symmetric Proposition: The process of defining the question and delivering the answer in a thesis is symmetric, allowing students to shape both parts to fit closely together by considering practicalities, capabilities, and resources from the outset.

Strategic Framing of Research Question: Framing the research question involves anticipating potential outcomes and building in insurance measures to mitigate high-risk elements, ensuring robustness and completeness in the research plan.

Iterative Process: Shaping the thesis question to fit around the answer requires repeated iterations, involving defining a plan, conducting research, expressing an understanding of results, and adjusting the thesis plan based on evolving ideas and information.

Analogy to Sculpting: The process of shaping the thesis question and plan is akin to a sculptor choosing a block of stone and gradually chiseling out a finished piece, evolving from initial concepts to a refined thesis over time.

Doing original work

All good things which exist are the fruits of originality. John Stuart Mill 

We never think entirely alone: we think in company, in a vast collaboration; we work with the workers of the past and of the present. [In] the whole intellectual world … each one finds in those about him [or her] the initiation, help, verification, information, encouragement, that he [or she] needs. A. G. Sertillanges 

Writing as Constitutive of Thinking: Writing contributes to shaping thoughts and solidifying ideas, preventing constant reprocessing and reconfiguring of conflicting ideas, and committing to a coherent perspective.

Uncertainty and Originality in Topic Selection: Doctoral students often grapple with uncertainty regarding whether their work will meet the requirement of originality, which is essential for making a distinctive contribution to knowledge in their discipline.

Criteria for Originality: Universities vary in their explicit specifications of originality, but generally require doctoral theses to present new facts or demonstrate independent critical power, or both, without precisely defining these terms.

Independence in Doctoral Work: Doctoral candidates are expected to demonstrate their own professional voice and independence in addressing major issues within their discipline, which may be challenging for students accustomed to assisting supervisors or working as apprentices.

Balancing Derivation and Novelty: Beginning students may err by being overly derivative, excessively summarizing existing literature without contributing new insights, or by overclaiming the novelty or value of their own work.

Symptoms of Derivative Writing: Excessive reliance on references and quotations in the opening chapters, without presenting original analysis or perspectives, can signal a derivative approach that fails to engage readers effectively.

If you speak of nothing but what you have read, no one will read you. Arthur Schopenhauer 10 Do not read, think! Arthur Schopenhauer

Limitations of Long Literature Reviews: Beginning with extensive literature reviews in 'big book' theses can lead to superficial coverage and fail to generate distinctive research questions, potentially delaying the development of the student's own creative work.

Potential Depressive Effects: Attempting to answer someone else's question through an exhaustive literature review can be disheartening, especially when it becomes evident that the task is unachievable within the constraints of time and resources.

Encouragement from Supervisors: Some supervisors may inadvertently encourage students to focus excessively on literature reviews, as it provides them with a quick overview of the topic and may seem functional for their own understanding.

Illusion of Comprehensive Solutions: Engaging in extensive literature reviews can foster an illusion that all theoretical or methodological problems can be resolved by uncovering more research, whereas the solution may require a more innovative and personalized approach.

Overemphasis on Text-Oriented Approaches: There's a risk that intellectuals overly reliant on text-based analysis may overlook the value of other forms of inquiry or creative problem-solving methods beyond extensive literature review.

The world does not contain any information. It is as it is. Information about it is created in the organism [a human being] through its interaction with the world. To speak about the storage of information is to fall into a semantic trap. Books or computers are parts of the world. They can yield information when they are looked upon. We move the problem of learning and cognition nicely into the blind spot of our intellectual vision if we confuse vehicles for potential information with information itself. Ivan Illich 

Limit Time Frame: Set a strict time frame for conducting a systematic bibliographic search at the beginning of your PhD to avoid getting bogged down in extensive literature reviews.

Utilize Modern Tools: Take advantage of modern web systems and computerized bibliographic tools to access academic papers quickly and efficiently, including abstracts and full texts.

Check for Similar Research: Before finalizing your topic, perform a search for closely similar PhDs to ensure you're not duplicating existing research efforts.

Emphasize Distinctive Framing: Focus on framing your thesis question and approach in a distinctive and personalized manner rather than aiming for exclusive ownership of a topic.

Avoid Overclaiming: Refrain from overclaiming the novelty of your ideas or approach, and avoid introducing unnecessary neologisms, reinterpretations, or novel frameworks without significant added value.

Acknowledge Existing Scholarship: Acknowledge existing scholarship in your field and build upon it rather than attempting to dismiss or claim sole ownership of established ideas.

Manage Reader Expectations: Be transparent about the influences on your work and avoid setting unrealistic expectations by claiming undue originality or dismissing established knowledge.

Somebody says: ‘Of no school I am part, Never to living master lost my heart; No more can I be said To have learned anything from the dead’. That statement – subject to appeal – Means: ‘I’m a self-made imbecile’. Johanne Wolfgang von Goethe 

An artist who is self-taught is taught by a very ignorant person indeed. John Constable 

Value Added Concept: Use the "value added" concept to evaluate your contribution to the existing literature. Assess how you have transformed, enhanced, or differentiated the starting materials of your analysis.

Relational Argument: Maintain a strong relational pattern of argument by acknowledging the extent to which you draw on existing literature. Present debates as a competition between clearly labeled schools of thought, highlighting their merits and limitations.

Critical Eye: Keep a critical eye on the extent to which you have added value to the existing literature. Tailor your claiming behavior accordingly, ensuring that you appear on top of previous work rather than overly dependent on it.

Organized Treatment: Treat debates in the literature in a more organized manner, presenting them as distinct schools of thought with their own merits and limitations. This approach demonstrates your understanding of the existing discourse while asserting your own contribution.

A new theory, even when it appears most unitary and all-embracing, deals with some immediate element of novelty or paradox within the framework of far vaster, unanalysed, unarticulated reserves of knowledge, experience, faith and presupposition … We neither can, nor need, rebuild the house of the mind very rapidly. Robert Oppenheimer 

Continuous Debate: Understand that academic debates rarely achieve complete closure. There will always be dissenting views and ongoing discussions within disciplines.

Mainstream vs. Insurgent Views: Recognize the existence of conventional wisdom, mainstream viewpoints, as well as insurgent and legacy critical views within your discipline. Consider how these perspectives influence academic discourse.

Evolution of Viewpoints: Anticipate that intellectual viewpoints within your field may change over the duration of your doctoral studies. Be prepared to adapt to shifts in mainstream approaches or emerging critical perspectives.

Contributing to Knowledge: Once you've identified your interests and connected your question to the existing literature, focus on contributing new insights or advancing knowledge in your specific area of study.

Overextended Literature Reviews: Be cautious of overextending literature reviews as a way to postpone the challenging task of generating new ideas. Recognize that facing a blank page and developing original thoughts can be intimidating but is essential for academic growth.

Navigating Institutional Influences: Navigate the various influences present in your academic environment, including supportive and potentially intimidating factors. While historical traditions may provide inspiration, they can also create pressure to conform or discourage original thinking.

Most people would die sooner than think; in fact they do so. Bertrand Russell 

Few people think more than two or three times a year; I have made an international reputation for myself by thinking once or twice a week. George Bernard Shaw 

Dialectical Learning: Understand that genuine learning involves a dialectical process, where new ideas challenge and potentially replace previous mental frameworks. This process can be unsettling as it requires internalizing new concepts while letting go of familiar ones.

Fear of Loss: Recognize the fear associated with losing confidence in previously held beliefs without acquiring a new, effective mental model. This fear stems from the uncertainty of being able to interpret phenomena accurately and the potential for feeling worse off intellectually.

Professional Level Expectations: Acknowledge the higher stakes for PhD students operating on the frontiers of knowledge, where the inability to master new ideas can be particularly disturbing. Embrace the challenge of navigating this asymmetrical journey of intellectual discovery.

You have learnt something. That always feels at first as if you had lost something. George Bernard Shaw 

I’m not afraid of failure … If you are learning anything new, you have got to get through humiliation. Eddie Izzard 

One does not set out in search of new lands without being willing to be alone on an empty sea. André Gide 

Recognize the Challenges: Acknowledge the difficulties in being original as a crucial first step towards creative thinking. Understand that small forward steps are encouraging and more realistic than setting unrealistically high expectations.

Establish Purposeful Thinking Time: Set aside dedicated time for purposefully developing your own ideas, typically at least an hour or two. However, be mindful of diminishing returns in excessively long sessions.

Disciplined Thinking Habits: Develop disciplined thinking habits that work for you by splitting your thinking time into separate stages, focusing on one discrete operation at a time.

Brainstorming: Begin by brainstorming ideas in an uncritical mode for at least 15 or 20 minutes. Jot down everything that comes to mind about or around a topic without editing or evaluating. Then spend an equivalent amount of time evaluating and organizing these ideas, considering their relevance to your central question or problem.

Capture Ideas: Jot down thoughts whenever they occur to you to prevent them from being lost. Recognize the limited capacity of the mind to hold ideas simultaneously, and understand the importance of capturing ideas before they fade away.

The best way to get a good idea is to get a lot of ideas. Linus Pauling

There is no such thing as a logical method of having new ideas or a logical reconstruction of this process. Karl Popper 

Break the Cycle of Anxiety: Recognize the tendency to recycle the same ideas due to fear of forgetting, especially under stress. Actively work to break out of this cycle to generate new ideas.

Note-taking and Documentation: Maintain a regularly updated notebook or digital file to jot down ideas and insights. This "paper memory," as Montaigne termed it, provides psychological security by ensuring that valuable ideas are recorded and retrievable, allowing for the generation of additional ideas without the fear of forgetting.

Chance gives rise to thoughts, and chance removes them; no art can keep or acquire them. A thought has escaped me. I wanted to write it down. I write instead, that it has escaped me. Blaise Pascale 

Creative research is a problem-generating activity. Problem discovery cannot be a scheduled activity. It can happen at any time. Lewis Minkin 

Keep a Constant Notebook: Maintain a notebook or digital system to jot down problems, questions, and potential ideas for development. This notebook should be with you at all times, whether you're in seminars, conversations, or even by your bedside.

Organize Your Jottings: Develop a system for organizing your notes that allows for easy retrieval and filing. Avoid using random scraps of paper, as they may lead to lost ideas.

Utilize Digital Tools: Consider using a personal digital assistant (PDA) or digital note-taking app that syncs with your PC-based filing system for efficient organization and retrieval of ideas.

Capture References: Use your notebook or digital system to securely capture references to relevant literature, which can be helpful for later research (see Chapter 5).

Benefit from Chance Associations: Take advantage of the phenomenon where immersion in a field can lead to creative insights through chance associations. By consistently jotting down ideas, you increase the likelihood of making these connections and sparking new insights.

In the field of observation, fortune favours only the prepared mind. Louis Pasteur 

 

It is in our idleness, in our dreams, that the submerged truth sometimes comes to the top. Virginia Woolf

Make a Commitment: Consider committing yourself to an intellectual approach, a specific school of thought within your discipline, or a broad world view. This commitment can provide you with a direction for your thinking and research, as suggested by the quote from Hamilton.

Retain a Capacity for Critical Thinking: While making a commitment can provide motivation and direction, it's essential to maintain a capacity for critical thinking. Be prepared to evaluate the credibility and defensibility of your views and adjust them accordingly.

Seek Ingenuity: A reasoned commitment can serve as a spur to ingenuity, encouraging you to explore creative solutions to challenges and obstacles in your research.

Recognize the Role of Relational Argument: Acknowledge the importance of relational argumentation, which involves understanding and contextualizing different viewpoints within your field. This skill helps you refine your own ideas and perspectives.

Those who stand for nothing, fall for anything. Alexander Hamilton 

Avoid Over-Theorizing: Making a commitment to your research does not mean over-theorizing your work or linking it to unnecessarily complex or high-flown ideas. Ensure that your theoretical exposition is proportional to the value-added elements of your dissertation, keeping it in sync with your research answers and managing readers' expectations effectively.

Be Realistic About Original Theory: Generating genuinely new theory at the PhD level is challenging in the humanities and social sciences due to the extensive growth and development of intellectual frameworks. Only pursue original theorizing if you have strong signals from supervisors and colleagues indicating your comparative advantage in this area.

Balance Scepticism with Ambition: Maintain a reasoned scepticism about your ability to transcend established limitations while also being ambitious enough to stretch your capabilities in empirical analysis, methodological work, or theoretical and thematic efforts. Trying something different or "out of the box" is essential for establishing genuine intellectual limits.

Embrace Creativity and Persistence: Creative individuals are often less cautious and more persistent in their efforts. They are optimistic about their prospects of success and dream of making significant advances, which motivates them to overcome barriers and persist despite initial setbacks.

Underestimate Difficulties: Creative people tend to underestimate the difficulties they face, mentally scaling down hurdles and compressing time-scales associated with their work, as noted by Hirschman. This mindset helps them maintain focus and dedication to their goals.

Creativity always comes as a surprise to us: we can never count on it and we dare not believe in it until it has happened. In other words, we would not consciously engage upon those tasks whose success clearly requires that creativity be forthcoming. Hence, the only way in which we can bring our creative resources into full play is by misjudging the nature of the task, by presenting it to ourselves as more routine, simple and undemanding of creativity than it will turn out to be. Albert Hirschman 

In many cases, I submit, the belief that one will achieve much is a causal condition for achieving anything at all. Jon Elster 

Recognize Age-Related Outlooks: Positive mental outlooks, characterized by optimism, creativity, and persistence, are more common among younger scholars compared to those in middle age. Life's disappointments often lead established scholars to adopt a more cautious approach, potentially renouncing difficult projects in advance.

Youthful Innovation: Genuine innovations and new insights, especially in challenging subjects like mathematics and highly mathematical sciences, are most often associated with scholars in their twenties or early thirties. Similarly, journal articles tend to be authored predominantly by younger academics, as older scholars may prefer less risky publishing avenues.

Importance of Doctoral Research: The doctorate remains a crucial source of fresh ideas and "new blood" research in humanities and social science disciplines, reflecting the innovative capacity of younger scholars. This underscores the significance of allowing doctoral students the freedom to pursue diverse and potentially challenging topics.

Critique of Routine PhD Approaches: Attempts by governments and educational bureaucracies to standardize and streamline the PhD process by limiting topics and imposing tight time limits may overlook the vital role of doctoral research in fostering innovation and advancing knowledge in academia.

Experience takes more away than it adds: young people are nearer ideas than old men [and women]. Plato 

Seeking a Compromise: Find a balance between ambition and feasibility when defining your doctoral research. Aim for a research design that challenges you to explore difficult concepts while also providing backup plans in case of setbacks.

Understanding Originality: In modern social sciences and humanities, originality typically involves taking existing ideas, viewpoints, or methods from one area of your discipline (or a related one) and applying them in a different context or for a different purpose. It's about creatively adapting existing concepts rather than inventing entirely new ones.

Productivity at the Fringes: The periphery of disciplines often yields the most innovative approaches, as scholars actively borrow or adapt ideas from one field to another. Exploring interdisciplinary connections can lead to fruitful new avenues of research.

Someone accused him of stealing an idea from another composer and he shrugged and said, ‘Yes, but what did he do with it?’ An anecdote about George Friedrich Handel, told by Robertson Davies 

Cumulative Achievement: Originality is typically the result of cumulative effort rather than a single moment of brilliance. It arises from the patient accumulation of small insights and intuitions over time, which collectively lead to a new perspective on a problem.

Sustained Attention: Consistent and focused attention to a problem is essential for fostering originality. It allows for the gradual development and refinement of ideas, leading to innovative insights and solutions.

My strength lies solely in my tenacity. Louis Pasteur  

Creativity takes time. T. Z. Tardif and Robert Sternberg

Formalizing Interpretations: Formalizing and verbalizing alternative interpretations of problems and findings can aid in clarifying your thinking process.

Expressing as Debate: Expressing interpretations as a debate between different positions can help in understanding the nuances of the problem or findings.

Role Adoption: Adopting different roles or voices, such as "detective," "pattern-maker," or "juggler," can provide new perspectives and insights into the problem.

Surface Tensions and Contradictions: Bringing inner tensions and contradictions about progress to the surface can lead to a clearer understanding of the problem.

Weight of Interpretations: By surfacing explanatory problems and explicitly considering different interpretations, you can decide what weight to assign to each interpretation.

Other Possible Positions: Consider adopting other positions such as a fatalistic or "awkward sod" view, which may serve as a corrective to overelaborate explanations and function similarly to a null hypothesis.

The depth to which a sense of the difficulty, of the problem, sinks, determines the quality of the thinking which follows. Sometimes slowness and depth of response are connected [in] getting to the roots of the matter. John Dewey 

 

Being puzzled, being unsure, being mistaken, and changing tack through trial and error, seem to be both integral and conducive to creative research. Lewis Minkin 

Integration of Themes and Findings: Continuously assess how your theme or findings in one chapter can be integrated with those of another, considering whether they are distinct, connected, consistent, conflicting, or tangential to each other.

Strengthening Connections: Explore ways to strengthen connections between different themes or findings, recognizing that academic value-added often arises from such integration.

Reconciliation of Inconsistencies: Address any inconsistencies that arise, striving to reconcile conflicting ideas or findings within your thesis.

Skill as a Writer and Communicator: Your skill as a writer, codifier, and communicator of ideas plays a crucial role in identifying and addressing emerging questions and conflicts.

Psychological Courage and Ingenuity: Demonstrate psychological courage and ingenuity in tackling questions and conflicts head-on, rather than evading or suppressing them.

Maintaining Integrity with Research Findings: Maintain integrity with research findings and disconcerting implications of arguments, avoiding the temptation to dismiss them as wrong or inconsequential.

Working Troubling Findings into Framework: Work troubling findings back into a revised or adjusted framework of intellectual commitments in a satisfactory manner, striving for coherence and consistency in your thesis.

Conclusions

Karl Marx once remarked, ‘Beginnings are difficult in all the sciences’.

Challenges of Beginnings: Acknowledge the difficulties inherent in the early stages of doctoral research, characterized by multiple decisions and transitions.

Extended Life-Project: Recognize that embarking on a PhD involves committing to a long-term intellectual endeavor, including selecting a topic and approach that will shape your scholarly trajectory.

Upgrading Work Outputs: Understand that transitioning to doctoral level work entails elevating the quality and depth of your research outputs.

Defining Dissertation Argument: Grapple with the perennial challenge of defining the central argument of your dissertation and conducting original and substantive research.

Becoming an Independent Intellectual: Embrace the journey of becoming and remaining an independent and committed intellectual, capable of effectively communicating your thoughts and contributing to knowledge.

Accumulation of Materials: Anticipate that as your research progresses and your materials accumulate, the process may become more manageable and less daunting.

Strength of Research Questions: Recognize the importance of the strength and clarity of your central research questions in determining the ease of your research journey.

Structuring and Organizing: Understand the critical role of structuring and organizing your thesis materials effectively as a cohesive whole, facilitating coherence and clarity in your argumentation.

3. Planning an integrated thesis: the macro-structure 

The pattern of the thing precedes the thing. Vladimir Nabokov 

Purposeful Organization: Recognize the necessity of breaking down a large text, such as a thesis, into manageable chapters, ensuring clarity and coherence in the overall structure.

Strategic Planning: Approach thesis planning with strategic foresight, considering factors such as word count, chapter sequence, and logical progression from start to finish.

Heroic Optimism: Embrace the challenge of planning a thesis from scratch with a sense of optimism, akin to the determination required in creating a perfect track in music.

Accessibility for Readers: Ensure that the structure of your thesis is reader-friendly, with a logical and well-organized sequence of chapters that facilitates understanding and engagement.

Sustainable Progress: Design a thesis structure that not only guides readers but also sustains your progress as an author and researcher, motivating you to advance and develop your methods and approach.

Serial Authorship: Acknowledge the common practice among PhD students of writing chapters sequentially, with each subsequent chapter building upon the previous ones.

Coherent Structure: Strive to avoid incoherent structures by carefully designing the chapter sequence to align with the organization of your argument and thought.

Value-Added Components: Understand the importance of identifying and highlighting the core components of your thesis, where you make a distinctive contribution to scholarship or research.

Sequencing Strategy: Consider the balance between focusing down and opening out in sequencing materials, recognizing the impact on text space, research time, and readers' perceptions.

Strategic Explanation: Choose a strategy of explanation from a limited number of options, weighing the advantages and disadvantages of each in conveying your ideas effectively.

The whole and the core 

There are two things to be considered with regard to any scheme. In the first place, ‘Is it good in itself?’ In the second, ‘Can it be easily put into practice?’ Jean-Jacques Rousseau 

Logistical Considerations: Prioritize logistical planning for your thesis, including word count, chapter sequencing, and overall organization.

Legal Restrictions: Acknowledge the legal limitations imposed by universities regarding the length of doctoral dissertations, typically ranging from five to eight years of full-time study.

Word Count Constraints: Understand the word count limitations for doctoral theses, often capped at around 100,000 words, with variations based on university regulations.

Avoid Overwriting: Beware of exceeding word count limits by aiming to produce a main text that is no more than four-fifths of the permitted length, leaving room for footnotes, appendices, and other supplementary materials.

Publication Potential: Consider the publishability of your thesis, aiming for a main text length of around 80,000 words, which may be more suitable for conversion into a book.

Minimum Length: Recognize the informal lower limits for doctoral theses, ensuring that your work meets the required standard for making a substantive contribution to knowledge.

Chunking Strategy: Divide your main text into evenly sized chapters, with a practical maximum length of around 10,000 words per chapter, to maintain internal organization and facilitate publication.

Chapter Length Considerations: Strive to avoid chapters that are significantly shorter or longer than the recommended length, as excessively short chapters may appear insubstantial, while overly long chapters can be unwieldy and difficult to publish.

Target Structure: Aim for a main text divided into approximately eight chapters, each averaging around 10,000 words, to maintain consistency and coherence.

Part Structure Caution: Exercise caution when considering a two-tier structure of parts above chapters, as it may introduce unnecessary complexity and hinder readability.

Core Components: Identify and prioritize core chapters containing high research value-added, ensuring they comprise a substantial portion of your thesis to demonstrate originality.

Distinct Blocks: Organize lead-in, core, and lead-out materials as distinct blocks within the thesis, ensuring clarity and coherence for readers.

Core Size: Ensure that core materials constitute a significant portion of your thesis, with a suggested rule of thumb of 50,000 out of 80,000 words for "big book" theses.

Lead-in materials (2 chapters at most) 

Lead-out materials (1 or 2 chapters) 

Core (5/8ths of words, and 5 chapters) 

Figure 3.1 Interrelating the whole and the core (see page:50)

Core Material Emphasis: Emphasize the importance of original core material in your thesis, aiming for at least half of the text to consist of primary research or distinctive arguments.

Avoid End-Loading: Resist the temptation to concentrate all original content towards the end of the thesis, ensuring a balanced distribution of core material throughout.

Limit Lead-in Materials: Set a maximum size limit for lead-in materials to avoid overloading the beginning of the thesis with non-core content, typically capped at two chapters.

Strategic Spare Chapter: Utilize one spare chapter for additional lead-in materials or a second lead-out chapter, if necessary, while maintaining a focus on the core.

Psychological Challenges: Acknowledge the psychological challenges of identifying core material and guard against tendencies to disguise or inflate its significance artificially.

Honesty in Core Identification: Be honest in identifying core material to ensure effective organization and planning of the thesis.

Branding the Core: Highlight and brand the core materials prominently throughout the thesis, using titles, abstracts, chapter headings, and other organizational elements to cue readers effectively.

Rolling Thesis Synopsis: Develop and maintain a rolling thesis synopsis to capture the main storyline of your thesis and keep track of your latest thinking and progress.

Synopsis Revision: Regularly revise the thesis synopsis to reflect updates in your research and ensure it remains up to date with your evolving ideas and findings.

Focusing down or opening out 

Thinking is a struggle for order and at the same time for comprehensiveness. C. Wright Mills 

 Thinking is a conversation with imaginary audiences. Randall Collins 

Three Basic Sequences: Doctoral theses commonly follow three basic sequences: the ‘focus down’ model, the ‘opening out’ model, and the ‘compromise’ model.

Focus Down Model: The focus down model, the most common but often criticized sequence, typically spans four or five years of work, following the chronological order of events.

Sequence Description: The contents page often includes multiple literature review chapters, a methods chapter, a few chapters of substantive work, and a brief concluding chapter.

Subtext Message: This model may convey a message to readers that the author started with a broad topic, gradually narrowed it down, and then rushed to conclude the thesis.

Common Reasons: The prevalence of the focus-down model can be attributed to disciplinary norms, supervisory preferences, and departmental imperatives.

Adverse Effects: This model leads to inefficient use of time, with students spending excessive effort on initial literature reviews or surveys that may later become irrelevant to their research focus.

Pedagogical Rationale: While literature reviews may have pedagogical value, spending too much time on them can yield diminishing returns and hinder progress.

Reader Implications: Experienced examiners may quickly skim through initial chapters, expecting familiar content, but prolonged lack of original material may raise doubts about the thesis's quality.

Author Challenges: Students may struggle to integrate early chapters into the final thesis, risking coherence and alienating examiners with superficial treatments or irrelevant content.

Reader Disappointment: The narrowness of the author's research focus after extensive literature review may disappoint readers, and a rushed conclusion may leave them questioning the thesis's significance.

Overall Impact: The focus down model may result in a thesis that ends weakly, failing to leave a strong impression on readers.

Opening Out Model: In contrast to the focus down model, the opening out model starts with a concise research question followed by key research findings and analysis before delving into wider theoretical implications.

Advantages: This model allows readers to engage with original work sooner, provides more analysis of results, and enhances the credibility of the author's criticisms and suggestions.

Benefits for Authors: Authors have more time to understand and develop interpretations of their findings, as they can begin key research tasks earlier in the thesis-writing process.

Underutilized Approach: While common in physical sciences, the opening out model is rarely used in the social sciences or humanities due to perceived challenges and deviations from disciplinary norms.

Compromise Model: A compromise model combines elements of the focus down and opening out approaches, aiming to strike a balance between providing necessary context and engaging readers with original research early on.

Implementation: This model suggests limiting lead-in materials to one or two chapters, focusing on a concise literature review closely tied to the research question, and considering a separate methods appendix rather than a full chapter.

Outcome: By adopting the compromise model, authors ensure that readers encounter original research materials early in the thesis, leaving more space at the end for in-depth analysis and discussion of theoretical implications, thus concluding the thesis on a strong and confident note.

Four patterns of explanation

I have yet to see any problem, however complicated, which when you looked at it the right way did not become still more complicated. Poul Anderson 

Communication Challenges: Effective communication requires aligning one's mode of expression with the expectations of the audience. Failure to do so can lead to misunderstandings, especially if the audience does not closely follow every detail of the communication.

Gender Differences: Men and women often have differing preferences in communication styles. Women tend to provide narrative explanations, while men prefer concise, "bottom-line" information.

Fundamental Approaches: In the humanities and social sciences, there are four fundamental ways of structuring long, text-based explanations: descriptive, analytic, argumentative, and a combination of any two.

Descriptive Explanations: Descriptive explanations organize information based

on external or chronological factors, such as spatial arrangement or historical sequence. This approach is common in disciplines like literature studies, history, law, and social policy.

Characteristics: Descriptive explanations may follow narrative, chronological, institutional, or spatial patterns. However, they often require a substantial amount of factual information to be effective.

Challenges: While descriptive explanations may seem straightforward, they can become disorganized and difficult to follow without careful structuring. Authors must weave analytic concepts or argumentative themes into their narratives to maintain coherence and relevance.

Considerations: Before opting for a descriptive structure in a thesis, authors should assess their ability to integrate higher-level analytical or argumentative elements. Failure to do so may result in a thesis lacking clear internal organization or intellectual coherence.

Analytic Explanations: Analytic explanations involve breaking down complex descriptions into organized categories created by the author. These categories are not inherent in the subject matter but are chosen based on the author's conceptual framework.

Structuring Analytic Explanations: An analytic approach organizes information into categories devised by the author, such as physical features, services, furnishings, etc. This method offers clarity and coherence, allowing readers to understand the organization of the material more effectively.

Types of Analytic Structures: In humanities and social sciences theses, three main types of analytic structures are common: periodized historical or narrative accounts, systematic accounts, and causal analyses.

Advantages of Analytic Approach: Analytic structures provide clear organization and coherence to the thesis. However, it's essential to keep the organizing categories simple and recognizable to readers, avoiding overly complex or esoteric classifications.

Avoiding Over-Analysis: While an analytic approach is valuable, excessive analysis can lead to a fragmented thesis lacking in narrative coherence. It's crucial to strike a balance between detailed analysis and maintaining a clear narrative thread throughout the thesis.

Argumentative Explanations: Argumentative explanations organize the thesis around debates or intellectual positions. They present pro and con arguments, allowing the author to articulate their perspective within existing scholarly debates.

Structuring Argumentative Explanations: An argumentative approach typically presents pro arguments followed by counterarguments, emphasizing the author's value-added contribution to the debate. This approach is personalized and focuses on multiple theoretical positions or relational arguments.

Disadvantages of Argumentative Approach: Argumentative structures may struggle to accommodate multiple perspectives within a limited word count. Additionally, they may not align well with disciplines dominated by a single paradigm or where overt disagreements are discouraged.

Matrix Patterns: Matrix patterns combine analytic and argumentative approaches, offering a structured yet flexible organizational framework for the thesis. They involve pairing primary and subsidiary organizing principles to ensure coherence and depth in the discussion.

Types of Matrix Patterns: There are four pairs of possible combinations in matrix patterns: analytic plus argumentative, argumentative plus analytic, analytic plus descriptive, and argumentative plus descriptive.

Primary and Secondary Dimensions: In each pair of combinations, one approach serves as the primary organizing principle for grouping chapters, while the other acts as the secondary organizing principle, explaining the sequence within each group.

Advantages of Matrix Approach: Matrix patterns offer a robust structure for organizing chapters, accommodating various strands of thinking effectively. They allow authors to explore multiple dimensions of their research while maintaining coherence and clarity.

Graphical Planning Devices: Using graphical planning devices, such as matrix diagrams, can help authors visualize alternative sequencing options and ensure a strong and coherent organization of the thesis chapters.

Effective Thesis Structure: By employing a matrix approach, authors can develop an effective eight-chapter thesis structure, comprising core chapters grouped according to primary and secondary dimensions, along with lead-in and lead-out chapters.

Conclusion

Importance of Macro-Structure: The macro-structure of your thesis is crucial, as it determines how your research is presented and understood. Each aspect of the macro-structure, including the opening-out model, the compromise model, and the various explanatory approaches, requires careful consideration.

Complex Judgements: Integrating these different structural elements often involves complex judgements. Authors must weigh various factors and considerations, which can sometimes lead to difficult decisions.

No One-Size-Fits-All Solution: There is no single best way to organize a long text like a thesis. Different considerations may lead authors in different directions, and there are often multiple viable alternative structures to consider.

Permanent Authoring Dilemmas: Choosing a structure for your thesis is just the beginning of a series of authoring dilemmas that you may encounter throughout the writing process. These dilemmas persist even at the micro-level of organizing individual chapters or papers.

Recurring Issues: Many of the issues faced in organizing the macro-structure of a thesis recur at the micro-level but on a more manageable scale. Authors must navigate these issues carefully to ensure coherence and clarity in their writing.

4. Organizing a chapter or paper: the micro-structure 

George said: ‘You know we are on the wrong track altogether. We must not think of the things we could do with, but only of the things that we can’t do without.’ A character in Jerome K. Jerome’s Three Men in a Boat

Importance of Internal Structure: Chapters are the building blocks of a thesis, but they must be effectively structured internally to maintain coherence and withstand scrutiny.

Dividing into Parts: A crucial initial step is to divide each chapter into parts, which helps organize the content and provides a framework for the reader to follow.

Headings and Subheadings: Designing clear and meaningful headings and subheadings is essential to highlight the organizing pattern of the chapter. They serve as signposts for the reader, guiding them through the content.

Writing Starts and Ends: Crafting engaging introductions and conclusions for chapters, as well as for main sections within chapters, is often overlooked. These elements are crucial for setting the stage, providing context, and summarizing key points.

Dividing a chapter into sections 

The human mind is only capable of absorbing a few things at a time. Stanislaw Lem 

Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small parts. Henry Ford 

Importance of Effective Chapter Organization: A chapter of 10,000 words must be divided into shorter component parts linked by a common theme to ensure both author and reader comprehension.

Utilizing Organizers: Sections and headings within chapters serve as vital cues for readers to follow the argument effectively. Organizers convey the structure of the argument in condensed form, aiding comprehension.

Creating Consistently Sized Sections: Chunking text into evenly sized sections (approximately every 2000 to 2500 words) helps maintain consistent expectations for readers and prevents sections from becoming too overwhelming.

Hierarchy of Headings: First-order headings denote the main sections of a chapter and should be prominently displayed. Second-order headings indicate subsections and are less prominent, while third-order subheadings further divide subsections and are even less prominent.

Avoiding Overly Complex Numbering Schemes: Overuse of numbering and subheadings can confuse readers and fragment the argument. It's advisable to limit numbered headings to main sections of chapters and avoid excessively hierarchical schemes.

Consistency Across Chapters: Maintaining consistency in heading formats and numbering schemes across all chapters is essential for coherence and clarity. Inconsistency can confuse readers and disrupt the flow of the thesis.

Flexibility in Implementation: While consistency is crucial, the heading scheme should also be flexible enough to adapt to the nature of each chapter and section, allowing for variations based on length and complexity.

Extended Contents Page: Maintaining an extended contents page, showing the sequence of headings and sections, can serve as a helpful planning and revising tool for the author, providing a synoptic view of the thesis's organization.

Devising headings and subheadings 

The best way to inform your reader is to tell them what they are likely to want to know – no more and no less. Robert J. Sternberg

Importance of Effective Headings: Headings should succinctly convey the essence of each section or subsection, providing readers with a clear idea of the content and argument.

Complexity of Headings: Crafting effective headings requires skill and attention, as seen in professional fields like advertising and journalism. Despite being often dismissed, these professionals excel at condensing complex information into concise headlines.

Limitations of Headings: While doctoral work allows for longer headings compared to tabloid newspapers, the goal remains the same: to communicate the essence of the content effectively.

Common Failings in Headings: Authors often fall short in creating substantive, informative, accurate, and non-repetitive headings. These failings can mislead readers, create confusion, and undermine the coherence of the text.

Addressing Non-Substantive Headings: Authors should avoid headings that lack substance, relying on vacuous verbiage or being overly formalistic. Instead, headings should convey the author's argument and provide a clear indication of the section's content.

Avoiding Interrogative Headings: Headings consisting solely of questions can create the illusion of expertise but fail to provide substantive answers. Authors should focus on conveying their argument rather than posing questions.

Ensuring Accuracy in Headings: Inaccurate headings mislead readers about the content of the section, undermining the author's credibility. Authors must ensure that headings accurately reflect the content of the accompanying text.

Mitigating Repetitive Headings: Repeating words from the thesis title or using overly similar headings can confuse readers and make the text less engaging. Authors should ensure that headings are distinctive and convey specific aspects of the content without unnecessary repetition.

Guidance for Authors: Authors should carefully review their headings to ensure they effectively convey the substantive argument of each section or subsection. Headings should complement the thesis title without unnecessary repetition, enhancing clarity and coherence.

Handling starts and finishes

Creations realized at the price of a great deal of work must in spite of the truth appear easy and effortless … The great rule is to take much trouble to produce things that seem to have cost none. Michelangelo Buonarroti 

Managing readers' expectations is indeed crucial for any author, and it involves various strategies to ensure clarity and engagement. Here's a breakdown of key elements and strategies for setting up expectations effectively in a chapter:

Chapter Title: Choose a clear and descriptive title for your chapter early on, as it serves as a focal point for both the author and readers, guiding the content and providing a sense of direction.

High Impact Start: Begin the chapter with a compelling element designed to engage readers' attention immediately. This could be a quotation, striking example, empirical information, or a problem or paradox that sets the stage for the chapter's main themes.

Framing Text: After the high impact start, provide framing text that transitions from the attention-grabbing opening to the main substantive themes of the chapter. This warming-up phase helps readers understand the context and significance of the chapter's focus.

Signposts: Offer signposts that briefly indicate the sequence and topics of the main sections within the chapter. These signposts should be concise and provide readers with a clear overview of what to expect without giving away too much detail or summarizing the entire argument prematurely.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls: Steer clear of common pitfalls such as starting chapters with low-impact or repetitive content, such as recapping previous chapters or providing overly detailed definitions. Instead, focus on fresh and engaging content that sets the tone for the chapter.

Maintaining Consistency: Ensure consistency in the style and tone of your chapter openings, aligning them with the overall structure and objectives of your thesis or manuscript.

By carefully crafting chapter openings that incorporate these elements, authors can effectively manage readers' expectations, setting the stage for a coherent and engaging reading experience.

starting and finishing sections within a chapter effectively. Here's a summary of the key points:

Starting a Section:

Sections should be numbered and have short, punchy headings.

Avoid repeating the thesis or chapter title in section headings.

Begin each section with one or two paragraphs of lead-in material, possibly including a quotation, empirical example, or intellectual puzzle related to the section's content.

Ensure that within-section signposts are brief and provide a clear overview of the topics to be covered without duplicating chapter-level signposts.

Finishing a Section:

Conclude each section logically and cumulatively, avoiding mechanical restatements of what was covered.

Use the concluding paragraph to draw out a central message from the section or provide an interim conclusion.

Make forward linkages to the next section to maintain the flow of the chapter.

Concluding a Chapter:

Include a Conclusions section with a clear heading that distinguishes it from first-order sections.

Summarize key points from each section in the first paragraph of the Conclusions.

Use the second paragraph to address broader issues raised in the chapter and establish a forward link to the next chapter.

Ensure that the Conclusions section provides a cohesive overview of the chapter's content and sets the stage for subsequent chapters.

Emergency Stop Test:

Conceptualize an "emergency stop test" to assess the clarity and organization of your chapter. Readers should be able to summarize the chapter's content and structure accurately.

Flexibility in Chapter Structure:

Adapt the structure of chapters and sections to the specific material being presented, avoiding overly mechanical application of rules.

Adjust the number and depth of subsections based on the length and complexity of the chapter.

Overall, effective structuring of chapters and sections involves balancing clarity, coherence, and engagement to guide readers through the content seamlessly.

5. Writing clearly: style and referencing issues 

Poorer writers have fewer readers. Robert J. Sternberg  

two critical aspects of academic writing: style and referencing:

Style:

The author emphasizes the importance of fluent, convincing, and professional communication in academic writing.

Unlike the extensive literature on style for novelists and creative writers, there is limited guidance available specifically for authors of doctoral theses or academic books.

Despite subjectivity in evaluating writing style, the author aims to provide practical advice for navigating conflicting style pressures at the paragraph-by-paragraph or sentence-by-sentence level.

Referencing:

The author highlights referencing as a crucial aspect of scholarly writing, particularly in PhD theses.

Proper acknowledgment of sources and comprehensive documentation of intellectual influences are essential.

While referencing can sometimes become obtrusive, the author suggests that good referencing practice can be clearly and objectively defined based on key principles.

The author plans to demonstrate how two simple core referencing systems fulfill these needs in the latter part of the chapter.

Overall, the excerpt underscores the importance of both style and referencing in academic writing, acknowledging the challenges and providing guidance for addressing them effectively.

The elements of good research style 

In discussing the elements of good research style, the author delves into the intricacies of composing at the paragraph and sentence level. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

Connected Chains:

Good style involves stringing together paragraphs and sentences in coherent chains.

These chains aim to resonate with the intended audience, making the text logical, meaningful, accessible, and plausible.

Subjectivity and Variation:

There is no singular path to achieving good style, as judgments on style depend on factors such as the nature of the material, the audience, and the author's objectives.

While some may argue that style is purely subjective, the author suggests that beneath the apparent diversity, there are fundamental challenges inherent in professional writing.

Authoring Dilemmas:

The author acknowledges the existence of divergent style pressures in doctoral work, which may stem from differing expectations, disciplinary norms, or personal preferences.

Checklists and Guidelines:

The author proposes exploring checklists of style issues tailored to the specific context of writing dissertations.

These checklists address style considerations at various levels, including paragraphs, sentences, and vocabulary choices.

The complexity of crafting a good research style, nuanced interplay between individual preferences, disciplinary conventions, and the needs of the audience

Conflicting style pressures 

Every difficult work presents us with a choice of whether to judge the author inept for not being clear, or ourselves stupid for not grasping what is going on … Writing with simplicity requires courage, for there is a danger that one will be overlooked, dismissed as simpleminded by those with a tenacious belief that impassable prose is a hallmark of intelligence. Alain de Botton

The tension between accessibility and value-added content in academic writing, illustrated in Figure 5.1:

Accessibility vs. Value-Added Content:

Accessibility considerations aim to make writing clearer and easier to follow, while value-added considerations focus on enriching the text with substantive content.

Writing that lacks both accessibility and content is ineffective, while striking a balance between the two is crucial for effective communication.

Development of PhD Students' Writing:

Most PhD students initially produce text that is ineffective, lacking in both accessibility and content.

As students progress, they tend to increase the content of their work, often resulting in complex and dense text.

Eventually, they strive to make their text more accessible, but this process can be challenging and time-consuming.

Navigating Style Pressures:

The four main pressures that influence writing towards accessibility: structural considerations, logical and developmental pressures, readability concerns, and managing readers' expectations.

Conversely, three general pressures in academic work tend to reduce accessibility: professional authenticity, reproducing the feel of an original text, and cramming in substantive content.

Optimizing Style:

A push for parsimonious phrasing, maximizing originality, and managing substantive content can enhance readability and accessibility up to a certain point.

However, overemphasizing these factors beyond an optimum level can make the text more difficult to read.

The complex interplay between various factors influencing writing style in academic work, emphasizes the importance of finding a balance between accessibility and substantive content.

An unnecessary word does no work. It doesn’t further an argument, state an important qualification, or add a compelling detail. (See?) Howard Becker 

The importance of balancing conciseness and accessibility in academic writing, along with guidelines for constructing effective paragraphs:

Paring Down Text:

While cutting unnecessary words can enhance clarity and focus, excessive pruning can lead to overly dense and formal writing, alienating readers.

Striving for simplicity should not sacrifice readability or accessibility.

Organizing Arguments:

The "say it once and say it right" approach advocates consolidating related points into cohesive arguments rather than scattering them throughout the text.

However, overemphasizing this approach can lead to overly rigid and inaccessible writing, lacking transitional elements.

Maximizing Originality:

Emphasizing originality is essential for academic work but should be grounded in research and aimed at clarifying value-added elements.

Injecting artificial complexity or density can hinder accessibility and diminish the text's impact.

Balancing Style Pressures:

Recognizing the various influences on writing style is crucial for achieving balance and readability.

Adjustments should aim to address neglected considerations rather than drastically altering the writing style.

Constructing Paragraphs:

Paragraphs serve as units of thought and should focus on a single point or component of a broader argument.

Optimal paragraph length varies but typically ranges from 100 to 200 words.

Topic sentences should accurately characterize paragraphs and provide a sense of progression, while wrap sentences should reinforce the main point and offer added value.

Avoid starting paragraphs with derivative phrases or being overly reliant on external citations, as this can undermine originality and organization.

In summary, effective academic writing requires striking a balance between conciseness and accessibility while carefully crafting paragraphs to guide readers through the argument.

Writing sentences 

Words differently arranged have a different meaning, and meanings differently arranged have different effects. Blaise Pascal 

The section on writing sentences emphasizes clarity and coherence in sentence construction:

Subject-Verb-Object Structure:

English sentences typically follow a Subject-Verb-Object structure for clarity and accessibility.

Avoid fake or implicit subjects and ensure clear identification of the main verb.

Qualifying or subordinate clauses should be placed at the beginning or end of sentences, not in the middle, to maintain the integrity of the sentence core.

Sentence Length and Complexity:

Long, complex sentences can hinder readability and comprehension.

Aim for an ideal sentence length of around 20 words, with a maximum of 40 words.

Long sentences often result from an inauthentic or overly formal writing style, or from attempting to convey multiple ideas within a single sentence.

Quality Control and Purpose of Sentences:

Each sentence should contribute to building, rather than blurring or corroding, the thesis.

Regularly assess new sentences to ensure they enhance the overall argument.

Eliminate sentences that do not contribute to the thesis or actively weaken it, while retaining those that provide continuity or rhetorical linkages.

Overall, the section underscores the importance of clear, concise, and purposeful sentence construction in academic writing.

Every author has a meaning in which all the contradictory passages agree, or he [or she] has no meaning at all. Blaise Pascal 

Three other questions are helpful to bear in mind when checking: 

◆ Is the sentence correct? Is it argumentatively substantive and logically put? Is it factually right? Do all parts of the sentence work together to meet these tests? 

◆ Is it appropriate for PhD level work? Some propositions may be factually true or argumentatively sound, but just not what we would expect to see people saying or discussing at the doctoral level. For instance, we would not expect a car engine designer to tell us that: ‘Internal combustion engines go brmm, brmm you know’ – even though that is completely correct. 

◆ Does the sentence say exactly what you want? Read it aloud. If anything niggles at the back of your mind, if you have some undefined uncertainty about the sentence, always rewrite it.

Choosing vocabulary 

We only think through the medium of words. Abbé Etienne de Condillac 

The section on choosing vocabulary emphasizes clarity and authenticity in word selection:

Avoid Overusing Jargon:

While some jargon is necessary in academic writing, doctoral authors often use it excessively.

Be mindful of substituting unnecessarily complex or lengthy terms for simpler ones, solely for the sake of sounding more professional.

Understand the Meaning:

Ensure a thorough understanding of the words you use, especially technical terms and jargon specific to your field.

Avoid substituting "portentous vocabulary" for ordinary language when there is no added value in doing so.

Maintain Naturalness:

Strive to write with the same clarity and naturalness as you would speak during a conversation with someone in your field.

Avoid adopting a strained or pompous tone, as it can make your writing seem inauthentic and potentially lead to misunderstandings.

Overall, the section highlights the importance of using vocabulary that is both precise and accessible, while maintaining a tone that reflects genuine communication rather than artificial sophistication.

No wise man [or woman] will wish to bring more long words into the world. G. K. Chesterton

Managing verb forms and tenses effectively is crucial for clear and engaging writing:

Use Active Verb Forms:

Active verbs with real subjects make your text more lively and focused.

Avoid passive verb forms, as they introduce ambiguity and weaken the clarity of your writing.

Choose Tenses Thoughtfully:

In history and social sciences, predominantly use the past tense to avoid inaccuracies due to future developments.

Be cautious when using the present tense, especially for real-world events or situations that may change over time.

Avoid Certain Verb Tenses:

Never use the pluperfect tense or the future conditional form excessively, as they can complicate your writing unnecessarily.

Beware of Conceptual Errors:

Avoid reification and anthropomorphism, where abstract concepts are treated as tangible entities or given human attributes.

Refrain from using the archetypal singular when discussing collective entities, as it oversimplifies and generalizes behavior inaccurately.

Capitalization and Acronyms:

Minimize the use of capitals in your text, especially in headings and non-proper nouns, to improve readability.

Use acronyms sparingly and only for frequently recurring concepts, providing clear explanations and a glossary for reader clarity.

By paying attention to verb forms, tenses, and avoiding conceptual errors, you can enhance the clarity and effectiveness of your writing.

Effective referencing

When a thing has been said, and said well, have no scruple. Take it and copy it. Anatole France 

Referencing in your doctoral thesis is a task that demands precision and efficiency. Here are some principles and considerations to guide you through this process:

Need to Know Criterion:

Ensure that all sourced information is precise and detailed enough to meet the needs of your examiners.

Avoid using vague citations like "whole book" references, and instead provide specific page numbers or chapter references.

One-Stop Look-Up Facility:

Your referencing system should offer a seamless experience for readers to locate all citations and quotations without having to search in multiple places.

Avoid two-stage look-up systems that require readers to navigate between footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies.

Guard Against Over-Referencing:

While precision is essential, be mindful not to over-reference by providing excessive supporting literature for every point.

Over-referencing can signal thesis paranoia and may detract from the readability and aesthetics of your text.

Choosing a Referencing System:

Follow the referencing format specified by your university regulations or professional association guidelines.

Consider adopting a citation management software like EndNote to streamline the referencing process, minimize manual effort, and ensure consistency across different formats.

Familiarize yourself with the features of your word processor (e.g., Word or WordPerfect) to create a searchable central references file if you opt not to use specialized software.

Start Early and Stay Organized:

Begin managing your references as early as possible in your PhD studies.

Maintain a systematic approach, regularly update your reference database, and back up your files to prevent data loss.

By adhering to these principles and leveraging appropriate tools, you can effectively manage your references and enhance the quality of your thesis writing.

Harvard referencing

Harvard referencing is a widely used system known for its simplicity and efficiency in academic writing. Here's a detailed overview of how it works:

In-Text References:

In-text citations include the author's surname (family name), year of publication, and page number(s) if applicable, all enclosed in brackets.

For example: (Jones, 1999, p. 14) or (Jones, 1999: 14–17) for page ranges. Chapters can be indicated as Ch. or Chs.

If multiple works by the same author are published in the same year, differentiate them by adding letters (e.g., 1999a, 1999b).

Bibliography:

Lists all sources cited in alphabetical order of the first author's surname, then by date.

Each entry includes the author's full name, year of publication, title of the work, place of publication, and publisher.

For journal articles, include the author's full name, article title, journal title, volume and issue numbers, and pagination.

Magazine or newspaper articles follow a similar format, replacing volume and issue numbers with the publication date.

Advantages of Harvard Referencing:

Provides immediate information for expert readers while allowing easy access to detailed information.

Eliminates duplication of references found in both bibliographies and notes, simplifying version control.

Discourages the proliferation of footnotes or endnotes, promoting clarity and focus in writing.

Addressing Common Challenges:

Endnotes can be used sparingly for extensive references to avoid cluttering the main text.

For unconventional references (e.g., primary texts, legal cases), establish clear conventions for citation.

Interview materials can be cited using standardized formats, with detailed information provided in a Research Methods Appendix.

Bibliographies should be unified and arranged alphabetically to ensure easy lookup and avoid segmentation.

Harvard referencing offers a clean and efficient way to cite sources, promoting clarity and accessibility in academic writing. By adhering to its principles and addressing specific challenges, you can effectively manage your references and enhance the quality of your work.

Endnotes 

Endnotes present a viable alternative to Harvard referencing, offering a clean-looking main text while providing full citation details. Here's how endnotes work:

In-Text Reference:

In-text references are minimal superscript numbers that correspond to detailed citations at the end of the document.

Note numbers should restart at 1 with each new chapter and be placed at the end of sentences.

Endnote Format:

Endnotes provide full details of the source, similar to Harvard bibliographies but in a different sequence.

On subsequent citations of the same source, detail levels can be reduced while ensuring unambiguous identification.

Placement and Convenience:

Endnotes can be located either at the end of each chapter or at the end of the entire document.

While they may be less convenient for readers compared to footnotes, they maintain a clean appearance in the main text.

Comparison with Footnotes:

Footnotes offer similar detailed citation but may present challenges in version control, repagination, and clutter.

Footnotes are less favored by publishers due to formatting issues, especially in online platforms.

Transitioning for Publication:

Rearranging footnotes and endnotes for publication is straightforward with word processing tools.

Transitioning between notes systems and Harvard referencing is easier with citation management software like EndNote.

Alternative Approaches:

Some authors in "soft" disciplines use a popular science style, providing references at the end of the text without in-text triggers.

While unconventional for PhD theses, this approach may gain popularity in certain academic circles.

Finally, professional writing requires an emphasis on clear language and proper reference. While there is no need to strive for perfection, producing clean, well-referenced language improves readability and author morale. Finally, the quality of research and relevant arguments should influence readers' attitudes. 

6. Developing your text and managing the writing process 

Never ignore, never refuse to see, what may be thought against your thought. Friedrich Nietzsche 

The process of writing, particularly in the context of creative non-fiction, the challenges and anxieties that writers face, emphasizing the importance of recognizing writing as a multi-stage process and having strategies in place to overcome difficulties

Three key strategies for easing the writing process:

Rethinking the Writing Process: Instead of viewing writing as a single creative act, it's beneficial to see it as a series of stages, each crucial for progress. This includes not only producing a first draft but also reflecting on the work, seeking feedback, revising, and implementing changes based on feedback.

Remodeling Problematic Text: When a piece of writing isn't working, having a method to radically reshape it can be invaluable. This suggests being open to significant revisions or restructuring to improve the coherence and effectiveness of the text.

Planning Writing Sessions: Careful planning of writing sessions can help maintain momentum and prevent getting stuck. This might involve setting specific goals for each session, creating a conducive writing environment, and implementing techniques to overcome potential obstacles.

These strategies aim to demystify the writing process and provide practical approaches to navigate its challenges effectively. By approaching writing with intentionality and resilience, authors can enhance their productivity and the quality of their work.

Drafting, upgrading and going public 

Everything is proceeding as I have foreseen. The Emperor, in The Return of the Jedi

The process of transitioning from drafting to refining and ultimately sharing one's work, the challenges and disappointments that often accompany this phase

Reality vs. Expectations: Converting a chapter plan into the first draft of a text often reveals discrepancies between what was envisioned and what is actually produced. Expectations of feasibility, conciseness, coherence, and originality may not align with the reality of the drafted text. This can lead to feelings of disappointment as the initial vision falls short.

Illusion of a 'One Best Way': 

Many PhD students fall into the trap of believing that there is a single optimal approach to writing a piece of work, waiting to be discovered. However, the reality is that writing is a complex and iterative process, often marked by uncertainty and experimentation. This illusion can lead to frustration and a sense of being lost when the anticipated 'best way' fails to materialize.

Taking a Longer View: 

Overcoming setbacks in the writing process requires adopting a broader perspective. This includes recognizing that writing involves multiple stages of development, each with its own challenges and opportunities for improvement. Additionally, seeking input and feedback from others can provide valuable insights and help refine the work.

By acknowledging the inherent challenges of writing and embracing the iterative nature of the process, authors can navigate setbacks more effectively and ultimately produce stronger, more polished work.

Stages in the writing process 

Don’t get it right, get it written. James Thurber 

 

Outlines can help, but not if you begin with them. If you begin, instead, by writing down everything, by spewing out your ideas as fast as you can type, you will discover … the fragments you have to work with. Howard Becker 

The stages of the writing process, emphasize the importance of recognizing writing as a multi-stage endeavor and the need to transition from private to public engagement with one's work

Initial Drafting: The first phase involves generating raw text without worrying too much about structure or coherence. This stage is about getting ideas down on paper or screen as quickly as possible, allowing for exploration and discovery. It's essential to understand that this initial draft is just the beginning and not necessarily the key stage in the development of the argument.

Revision and Refinement: The second phase focuses on revising and refining the draft. This includes editing at the word level to correct errors and improve clarity, as well as revising at the paragraph level to ensure coherence and flow. Upgrading involves strengthening arguments with additional evidence or analysis. Remodeling may be necessary for significant restructuring of the text.

Private to Public Engagement: Phase three marks the transition from private to public engagement with the text. Seeking feedback from supervisors, advisors, or peers becomes crucial at this stage. Incorporating diverse perspectives and feedback into further revisions or remodeling helps in improving the quality of the text.

Presenting Work Publicly: The final phase involves presenting the work to broader audiences, such as departmental seminars or conferences. Engaging with audiences outside one's immediate field helps in refining presentation skills and gaining insights into how the work is perceived by others.

Overall, the process involves iterative cycles of drafting, revision, and public engagement, each contributing to the development and refinement of the text. Embracing this process and seeking feedback from various sources are essential for producing high-quality academic writing.

Talking is a basic human art. By it each communicates to others what he [or she] knows and, at the same time, provokes the contradictions which direct his attention to what he has overlooked. Bernard Lonergan 

 Conference makes a ready man [or woman]. Francis Bacon 

Phase 4 of developing your text involves going public in wider professional settings, such as presenting seminars at other universities or delivering papers at conferences. Here are some key points regarding this phase:

Preparing Your Work: Before presenting your work outside your immediate academic circle, ensure that your chapter or paper is well-developed and thoroughly worked-up. You should be reasonably confident about receiving outside criticism of your ideas.

Presenting at Other Universities: Presenting at seminars in other universities can be a valuable step. It allows you to receive feedback from a different audience and gain insights into how your work is perceived outside your home institution.

Specialist Group Meetings: Participating in small-scale specialist group meetings within academic professional associations provides an opportunity for more focused criticisms and evaluations from people working in your field.

Presenting at Conferences: Presenting at larger professional conferences, especially at the national level, exposes your work to a broader audience. These audiences are often more diverse and may offer more radical challenges to your ideas, encouraging you to consider alternative approaches.

International Conferences: As your work progresses and you develop more tightly written and concise papers, you may consider applying to present at international conferences. These conferences offer an even wider potential audience but typically allow for shorter presentation times, requiring you to be more concise and focused in your delivery.

Engaging in these public presentations not only helps you refine your presentation skills but also exposes your work to a broader range of perspectives and criticisms, ultimately strengthening the quality of your research.

Remodelling text 

One changes one’s ideas the way an animal sheds its coat, in patches: it’s never a wholesale change from one day to the next. Umberto Eco 

Remodelling Text: Key Steps

Chapter Skeleton Overview

Write out the full chapter heading and subheadings in the same font as used in the chapter.

Use pen and paper for this process.

Paragraph Summaries

Summarize each paragraph in the chapter with a one-line summary, focusing on the argumentative core.

Be realistic and concise, avoiding lengthy summaries.

Numbering Paragraph Summaries

Number all paragraph summaries sequentially from the beginning to the end of the chapter.

Basic Checks After Skeleton Overview

Chapter Structure

Determine if the structure is simple (good) or complex (bad).

Argument Pattern

Assess if the argument pattern is clear and logical (good) or unclear (bad).

Division of Sections and Subsections

Check if sections and subsections divide the chapter text evenly (good) or unevenly (bad).

Developmental vs. Recursive Feel

Evaluate if the chapter's argument has a developmental or cumulative feel (good) or if it seems recursive and repetitive (bad).

Analytic vs. Descriptive Approach

Determine if the chapter uses an analytic or argumentative mode of exposition (better) or relies on a descriptive approach (worse).

These checks provide insights into the coherence and effectiveness of the chapter's structure and argumentation, guiding the remodelling process for improved clarity and logic.

Books do not always obey the author’s orders and this book … quickly became obstreperous. Claire Tomalin 

 

A show has a mind of its own, and it’s wrong to push it in a direction it doesn’t want to go. Neil Simon 

Remodelling Text: Restructuring for Clarity and Logic

Generate Alternative Schema

Develop a new structure with alternative section and subsection headings for the chapter on a new sheet of paper.

Create a different sequence of ideas to surface a different way of organizing the content.

Chop and Stick

Save existing text as different files and insert new section headings into the revised file.

Cut and paste paragraphs from the original sequence to the alternative one without rewriting.

Evaluate Alternatives

Print out the reconfigured file and read through, marking it up as you go along.

Compare the new sequence with the old one to determine which works best for clarity and logic.

Refocus Beginnings and Ends

Refocus the beginnings and ends of sections and subsections to align with the new structure.

Remake linkage points between paragraphs where the sequence has changed.

Final Checks

Assess each subheading's level and placement, ensuring they divide the text evenly.

Review linkages between paragraphs to ensure coherence and logical flow.

Practice the "emergency stop" test to gauge the clarity of the structure and argument progression.

By following these steps and conducting thorough evaluations, you can reshape your text to improve its clarity, coherence, and accessibility for readers.

Organizing the writing process

Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite, ‘Fool,’ said my Muse to me, ‘look in thy heart, and write.’ Sir Philip Sidney 

 

I write when I’m inspired, and I see to it that I’m inspired at nine o’clock every morning. Peter de Vries 

Organizing the Writing Process: Maximizing Productivity and Efficiency

Setting Realistic Time Slots

Consider all competing demands on your time and prioritize writing accordingly.

Allocate longer or more frequent periods for writing if necessary.

Utilize Substantial Time Slots

Allocate substantial blocks of time for writing raw text or substantial revisions, typically around three to four hours.

Ensure complete focus and freedom from distractions during these writing sessions.

Preparation and Warm-Up

Dedicate the first half-hour of each writing session to pre-writing activities, such as reviewing notes and organizing ideas.

Type notes and organizing ideas into the document to maintain focus and track progress.

Proper Conclusion

Spend the last half-hour of each session finishing in a controlled manner.

Gather materials and notes needed for the next session and leave clear indications of where to start.

Maintain Progress

Print out new pages and put them in a file for editing outside the session to sustain the sense of progress.

Writing Session Efficiency

Allocate two to three hours for the main body of each writing session to accumulate several hundred words.

Avoid excessively long sessions to prevent diminishing returns and fatigue.

Ergonomic Considerations

Regularly flex arms and hands while typing to prevent repetitive strain injury (RSI).

Use an ergonomic keyboard and take breaks every half hour to stretch and walk around.

By following these guidelines and maintaining a structured approach to writing, you can enhance productivity, minimize distractions, and mitigate the risk of repetitive strain injuries.

My foot is a writer too. Friedrich Nietzsche 

Writing Sessions: Perspectives and Practical Considerations

Salami-Slicing Approach:

Zerubavel's Perspective:

Writing 500 words per session requires 160 sessions to complete 80,000 words.

Even with redrafting each word twice, it only requires 320 sessions.

Writing 1000 words per day translates to completing the thesis in 160 days, and 2000 words per day shortens it to 80 days.

Time Allocation Realities:

Daily Time Constraints:

With 7.5 hours of sleep, approximately 1440 waking minutes are available per day.

Assuming each task takes under five minutes, about 300 tasks can be accomplished daily across all activities.

In a four-hour writing session, approximately 50 tasks can be completed, considering various writing-related activities.

Influencing Factors:

Balancing Intellectual and Physical Demands:

Writing entails a balance between intellectual exertion and physical constraints.

Sedentary nature of writing can be countered by incorporating breaks for physical activities like walks, gym, or outdoor excursions.

Maintaining physical well-being is crucial for sustained productivity and effective writing.

By acknowledging diverse perspectives on writing sessions and considering practical time constraints and influencing factors, authors can develop effective strategies for managing their writing process and achieving their goals.

The soul has an urge to know, and the body an inclination to shirk the effort involved. St Thomas Aquinas 

 

The whole calamity of man comes from one single thing, that he [or she] cannot keep quiet in a room. Blaise Pascal

 

Our thinking subject is not corporeal. Immanuel Kant 

Overcoming Mental Cross-Pressures in Writing

Understanding Mental Challenges:

Concentration and Focus Issues:

Often stem from mental cross-pressures rather than physical resistances.

Intellectual morale and external worries significantly influence progress.

Addressing Displacement Behavior:

Persistence in Writing:

Maintaining writing sessions despite distractions is crucial.

Small steps and tangible progress indicators bolster morale and incentivize continuation.

Monitoring Progress:

Word Count Tracking:

Record starting and ending word counts for each session.

Regularly update word count and compare with target levels to avoid overwriting.

Sustaining Intellectual Morale:

Recognizing the Multi-Stage Nature of Writing:

Initial drafting may feel dispiriting due to the misconception of writing as a one-off creation.

Remember the potential for extensive editing, revising, and remodeling to improve the text.

Leveraging Revision and Enhancement:

Optimizing the Authoring Process:

Editing allows for significant changes, including removing flaws, strengthening evidence, and refining arguments.

Utilize opportunities for further development, scholarly referencing, and enhancement of analysis frameworks.

By acknowledging and addressing mental cross-pressures, persisting in writing sessions, monitoring progress, sustaining intellectual morale, and leveraging the revision process, authors can overcome obstacles and effectively advance their writing projects.

Work makes the companion. Johanne Wolfgang von Goethe 

 In order that people may be happy in their work, 

these three things are needed: they must be fit for it; 

they must not do too much of it; 

and they must have a sense of success in it – not a doubtful sense, 

such as needs some testimony of others for its confirmation, 

but a sure sense, or rather knowledge, that so much work has been done well, and fruitfully done, whatever the world may say or think about it. 

W. H. Auden 

Balancing Reader Considerations in Writing

Constructive Influence of Reader Perspectives:

Effective Representation:

Consideration of how ideas are conveyed enhances communication with readers.

Appropriate Detailing:

Utilize the "need to know" criterion to determine the level of detail required for arguments.

Anticipating Reader Interpretations:

Vital for composing and refining prose to ensure clarity and comprehension.

Potential Challenges:

Writer's Block Syndrome:

Overemphasis on anticipating reader reactions can hinder the writing process.

Authors may struggle to produce text or share their work due to excessive concern about reader responses.

Age and Experience Factors:

Impact on Writer's Block:

More common among established authors in middle age, particularly those striving to replicate past successes.

Younger authors may be less affected by this issue as they embark on their writing journey.

Doctoral Challenges:

Intensified Pressure:

Doctoral pursuits, especially when involving substantial thesis projects, can exacerbate anxieties related to reader considerations.

Compensating for Age-Related Protections:

The demanding nature of doctoral work may overshadow any protective effects associated with age.

Navigating the balance between anticipating reader responses and overcoming writer's block is essential for doctoral candidates and established authors alike. While considerations of reader perspectives enrich writing, excessive preoccupation can impede progress and hinder the expression of ideas.

Trouble has no necessary connection with discouragement – discouragement has a germ of its own, as different from trouble as arthritis is from a stiff joint. F. Scott Fitzgerald 

 

Some people misinterpret what writer’s block is. They assume you can’t think of a single thing. Not true. You can think of hundreds of things. You just don’t like any of them. Neil Simon

Benefits of Wide Commentary Exposure

Counteracting Private Criticism Standards

Diverse Feedback Sources:

Commentary from various individuals, including family, supervisors, peers, and seminar audiences, helps counteract internalized overly critical standards.

External Validation:

Exposure to different perspectives reminds authors that diverse opinions exist, reducing the impact of self-imposed criticism.

Encouragement from Professional Environment

Conference Participation:

Engaging with the professional world through conferences boosts morale and confidence.

Demonstrates the breadth of standards within the academic community, alleviating pressure on individual researchers.

Realistic Professional Expectations

Aligning Expectations:

Understanding the breadth of standards in academia fosters a realistic perception of one's professional audience.

Balancing Feedback Reception:

Nietzsche's concept of "seeing what may be thought against your thought" encourages openness to critique without inhibiting the writing process.

Conclusion

Widespread exposure to feedback and participation with the professional community help to reduce internalized criticism and develop realistic expectations in PhD researchers. Accepting multiple opinions allows authors to improve their work without falling to crippling self-doubt.

Conclusions To learn from experience is to make backward and forward connections between what we do to things and what we enjoy or suffer from things in consequence. Under such conditions, doing becomes a trying, an experiment with the world to find out what it is like; the undergoing becomes instructions – discovery of the connections of things. John Dewey 

Iterative Nature of Text Production

Overall Architecture Updates

Continuous Refinement:

Maintain flexibility in your thesis architecture, updating it as research activities progress.

Regularly assess how well your planned structure aligns with practical outcomes.

Structural and Sequencing Alternatives

Exploring Options:

Consider alternative structures and sequencing of materials at the micro-level.

Compare current arrangements with well-specified alternatives to optimize coherence and flow.

Sentence-Level Improvement

Critical Distance:

Create space and distance to effectively identify areas for improvement in sentence-level writing.

Adopt a critical eye to refine and enhance the clarity and effectiveness of individual sentences.

Consideration of Reader Perspective

Reader-Centric Approach:

Anticipate how readers will interpret and deconstruct your text.

Evaluate whether each sentence, paragraph, and chapter positively contributes to building the thesis's argument.

Embracing the Process

Confidence Boost:

Recognize that producing a professional text is a multi-stage process with continuous refinement.

Understand that significant changes will occur as raw text evolves into a polished final form.

Conclusion

Iterative text production entails updating the thesis architecture, experimenting with structural alternatives, fine-tuning sentences, and taking into account the reader's perspective. Embracing this approach increases confidence and facilitates the creation of an effective, cohesive professional document.

7.  Handling attention points: data, charts and graphics 

Standards of what counts as good presentation in reports are not static. They increase over time, reflecting changing information technology capabilities and practices in other large organizations. … Effective graphics and presentation of data require close attention to detail and zero tolerance of defects. UK National Audit Office 

Importance of Attention Points:

Readers prioritize attention points such as tables, charts, diagrams, and photographs, assessing their professionalism and clarity.

Competently delivered attention points enhance the overall presentation of the thesis.

Expectations in Academic Settings:

Standards for handling attention points vary, but poor presentation is prevalent, causing frustration for readers and audiences.

Effective handling of attention points is crucial for oral presentations and poster sessions at conferences.

Addressing Poor Presentation:

Academia often fails to communicate ideas intelligently and accessibly, damaging its external reputation.

Developing a consistent approach to attention points requires recognizing the intellectual reasons for improvement.

Relevance for All Researchers:

Even those without data-heavy theses benefit from understanding how to compress text and provide visual aids for presentations.

The focus is on reducing and effectively communicating data, which is relevant across disciplines.

By improving the handling of attention points, researchers can enhance the professionalism and impact of their work.

'Need to Know' Criterion:

Determine what information readers require to accept analysis conclusions.

Segment readers based on their specific needs: main text for general audience, detailed appendices for evaluators, full documentation for replication.

Reducing Complexity:

Simplify numerical data presentation by using charts and graphs instead of tables.

Apply the 'need to know' criterion to decide the appropriate level of detail in reporting data.

Quality Control:

Ensure attention points are independently intelligible.

Number exhibits consistently and provide clear headings and labels.

Include source notes and legends to aid interpretation.

Employ total quality control to keep main text and attention points in sync.

Adapting to Changing Standards:

Respond to evolving expectations of examiners and readers regarding the presentation of tables, charts, and diagrams.

By adhering to these principles, researchers can effectively present data, enhance reader understanding, and meet evolving standards in academic presentation.

Handling tables 

Statistics is the plural of anecdote. Daniel P. Moynihan 

To effectively handle tables, consider the following principles:

Informative Headings and Labels:

Provide complete details in headings and labels, including country location, time period, and what is being measured.

Ensure clarity and avoid unnecessary abbreviations.

Simplify Data Presentation:

Use the 'need to know' criterion to determine the appropriate level of detail.

Avoid clutter and obfuscation by eliminating unnecessary decimal points and using easily understandable numbers.

Numerical Progression:

Arrange rows to show a clear numerical progression, unless presenting over-time data or categorical variables with a fixed order.

Ensure data are easily interpretable and follow a logical sequence.

Statistics for Central Level and Spread:

Provide statistics for central level and spread, such as mean, median, quartiles, range, and midspread.

Help readers understand the distribution and variability of the data.

Layout:

Optimize layout for readability, avoiding excessive spacing and using appropriate font sizes.

Highlight key statistics or data points and ensure a clear finish to the table.

Consider Alternatives:

Evaluate whether a chart or graph might convey the information more effectively.

Retain tables for situations where precise numerical values are necessary, or when data variation is too extreme for effective charting.

By adhering to these principles, tables can effectively communicate precise numerical information to readers, enhancing comprehension and readability.

Designing charts and graphs

When designing charts and graphs to represent data, it's important to follow best practices to ensure clarity and readability. Here are some key principles to keep in mind:

Preference for Charts Over Tables: Whenever possible, use charts or graphs instead of tables to present data, as they are generally easier to analyze and interpret.

Choose the Right Type of Chart:

Different types of charts are suited to different types of data and purposes. Common types include bar charts, line graphs, pie charts, scatterplots, etc.

Consider the nature of your data and what you want to convey to determine the most appropriate chart type.

Labeling:

Ensure clear and informative headings and axis labels for easy interpretation.

Avoid clutter and confusion by using concise labels and minimizing abbreviations.

For charts with long labels, such as vertical bar charts, consider using a horizontal orientation to accommodate them.

Numerical Progression:

Arrange data in a logical numerical progression to aid understanding.

Ensure that the sequence of data points is clear and easy to follow.

Simplicity and Clarity:

Keep charts simple and uncluttered to avoid overwhelming the reader.

Use clear fonts, colors, and formatting to enhance readability.

Highlighting Key Information:

Use visual cues such as color, shading, or annotations to draw attention to important data points or trends.

Ensure that the key takeaways from the data are easily discernible at a glance.

Accuracy and Consistency:

Ensure that the data accurately reflect the information being presented.

Maintain consistency in formatting and design across all charts and graphs in your presentation or report.

By following these principles, you can create charts and graphs that effectively communicate your data and insights to your audience.

The comparison between Figures 7.2 and 7.3 highlights several important principles for designing effective charts and graphs:

Clear and Informative Labels: Ensure that charts have informative headings and labels, including details of units of measurement. Legends should be included for multiple data series.

Appropriate Number Representation: Choose an appropriate level of numbers to ensure easy scaling of the chart. Avoid cluttering the visual space with excessive numbers.

Proper Scaling: Scale charts so that variations are still apparent in the middle mass of data. Avoid setting the scale to accommodate only extreme observations.

Axis Allocation: Allocate axes appropriately, especially in scatterplot charts where the horizontal axis should represent the independent variable and the vertical axis the dependent variable.

Numerical Progression: Design charts with a clear numerical progression, except for cases involving over-time trends or categorical data with fixed order.

Avoiding Three-Dimensional Complexity: Prefer two-dimensional formats over three-dimensional ones, as they are easier to design consistently and interpret.

Independently Intelligible Charts: Ensure that each chart is independently intelligible to readers who may not be familiar with the data. Charts should be revised and updated along with the main text to maintain consistency.

By adhering to these principles, you can create charts and graphs that effectively convey your data and insights to your audience.

Other techniques for data reduction 

The only way to grasp a mathematical concept is to see it in a multitude of different contexts, think through dozens of specific examples, and find at least two or three metaphors to power intuitive speculations. Greg Evans 

The various techniques for data reduction and exploratory data analysis. Here's a summary of the key points:

Importance of Understanding Data: To present data effectively, it's crucial to thoroughly understand them by examining them closely and asking relevant questions.

Data Reduction Principles:

Put data in a numerical progression and visualize them through charts before engaging in complex analysis.

Simplify data by removing clutter, unnecessary decimal points, or transforming them using index numbers or ratios.

Explore and understand patterns in the data before conducting multivariable analysis like correlations or regression.

Exploratory Data Analysis Techniques:

Stem-and-Leaf Analysis: Divides data into stems and leaves to retain more information about the distribution.

Box-and-Whisker Plots: Visual representation of statistical data, showing central tendency, spread, and outliers.

Data Smoothing: Techniques like mean-smoothing and median-smoothing help eliminate fluctuations in volatile data series, making underlying trends more apparent.

Application and Benefits: These techniques offer a deeper understanding of data patterns and help in presenting information effectively to readers. They require minimal additional time but can significantly enhance the clarity and insightfulness of data analysis.

The importance of reducing complex data to essentials, thereby facilitating a more comprehensive and insightful analysis

Using diagrams and images 

Thinking is not just the application of pure concepts arising from a previous verbalization, it is also the entertaining of diagrammatic representation. Umberto Eco

The importance of using diagrams and images effectively in academic writing, particularly in conveying complex information and enhancing reader understanding. Here are the key points:

Role of Diagrams and Visual Representations:

Diagrams allow for the representation of complex relationships and concepts that may be difficult to convey through text alone.

They provide readers with a visual scaffold for understanding, complementing the textual explanation.

Designing Effective Diagrams:

Diagrams should be carefully designed using appropriate software packages like Microsoft PowerPoint or Lotus Freelance Graphics.

Following established conventions for constructing diagrams ensures clarity and consistency in communication.

Diagrams should be simple, uncluttered, and consistently designed across the thesis.

The use of clear labels and minimalistic design principles is essential to avoid confusion.

The arrangement of elements in diagrams should follow logical patterns, with clear connections between components.

Interpreting Diagrams:

Readers should be able to interpret diagrams easily, with clear directional cues provided by arrows or lines.

Double-headed arrows and ambiguous connections should be avoided as they can confuse readers.

Importance Beyond Academic Writing:

Proficiency in designing effective attention points, including diagrams and images, is valuable beyond academic writing.

Effective visual communication skills are increasingly important in professional settings such as business and other professions.

The ability to present textual materials in an accessible and imaginative way is essential for engaging diverse audiences.

8. The end-game: finishing your doctorate 

The tension between making it better and getting it done appears wherever people have work to finish or a product to get out: a computer, a dinner, a term paper, an automobile, a book. We want to get it done and out to the people who will use it, eat it, read it. But no object ever fully embodies its makers’ conception of what it could have been. Howard Becker 

 

The art of writing does, in fact, give to those who have long practised it habits of mind unfavourable to the conduct of affairs. It makes them subject to the logic of ideas … It gives a taste for what is delicate, fine, ingenious and original, whereas the veriest commonplaces rule the world. Alexis de Tocqueville 

The final stages of completing a doctorate, drawing parallels between the process of writing a thesis and participating in a theatrical production. Here are the key points:

Struggles with Perfectionism: Intellectuals, including doctoral candidates, are often portrayed as being hesitant to finish projects due to perfectionist tendencies. The process of writing a thesis involves confronting imperfections and deficiencies, which can be psychologically challenging.

Comparison to Theatrical Production: The early stages of writing a thesis involve extensive planning and discussion, akin to casting meetings and rehearsals in a theatrical production. As deadlines approach, priorities shift from idealism to practicality, with a focus on completion rather than perfection.

Importance of First Draft: Reaching the milestone of completing a first draft marks a significant transition in the writing process. At this stage, the emphasis shifts from adding more content to refining and finalizing the existing material.

Challenges of Ending: Ending the writing process is not simple and may involve upgrading the draft into a cohesive thesis, submitting it for examination, and preparing for an oral defense.

The emotional and practical challenges faced by doctoral candidates as they navigate the final stages of completing their thesis. The need to overcome perfectionism and prioritize completion to move forward in the academic journey

From a first full draft to your final text 

The last thing one settles in writing a book is what to put in first. Blaise Pascal 

Submitting the thesis and choosing examiners 

The transition from the first full draft of a thesis to the final text, the challenges and strategies involved in consolidating and integrating the various elements. Here are the key points:

Inconclusive Nature of Drafting: Producing chapter drafts is an iterative process, and later text may have implications for previously written chapters. Changes in tone, themes, or structure may necessitate revisions and reallocation of materials between chapters.

Reviewing the Entire Thesis: Once all chapter drafts are completed, there comes a moment when you can physically review and assess the thesis as a whole. This marks a crucial stage where consolidation becomes the primary task, rather than adding new elements.

Completeness of First Draft: A genuinely complete first draft indicates that the essential elements of the thesis are in place. However, there may still be a need for reorganization and strengthening of the text.

Reorganization Phase: After completing the first draft, there typically follows a period of three to six months dedicated to reorganizing the elements to produce a stronger and more integrated final text. Emphasis is placed on drawing out intellectual themes and creating consistent linkages across various sections of the thesis.

Integration of Key Elements: The process involves enhancing linkages across five key elements: the thesis title, abstract, first chapter (or lead-in chapter), conclusion sections of middle chapters, and the final chapter.

The importance of consolidating and refining the thesis during the transition from the first full draft to the final text, focusing on thematic coherence and integration across different sections

The thesis title

Crafting an effective thesis title, its importance in conveying the central concepts and themes of the research. Key points:

Structuring the Title: Thesis titles typically use a colon to separate thematic or analytic ambitions from empirical references or limitations. The choice of words before and after the colon depends on whether the author views the work as theoretically ambitious or more empirical/descriptive.

Significance of Title Words: Every word in the title should be carefully chosen and play a significant role in the analysis. Readers will expect these words to be defined, frequently used, and essential to understanding the main text chapters.

Considerations in Choosing a Title:

Ensure the title accurately captures the content of the thesis.

Define the central research question answered by the thesis.

Include main theoretical concepts or themes used in the research.

Clarify the empirical referents and limitations of the research.

Revising the Title: It's essential to critically evaluate the inherited title and brainstorm alternative wordings with the supervisor. Consider strengths and weaknesses compared to various alternative titles to ensure the chosen title effectively represents the research.

Setting a Cut-off Date: For research involving current events, decide on a cut-off date and write the thesis in the past tense. Including the date limits of the analysis in the title helps justify the research's timeframe.

Crafting an effective thesis title requires careful consideration of its ability to convey the research's central concepts, themes, and empirical focus, ensuring it accurately represents the work to potential readers and employers.

The abstract

The abstract is a crucial component of your thesis, providing a concise summary of your research for readers. Here's a breakdown of how to structure a well-written abstract:

Introduction to the Literature:

Begin with one or two sentences summarizing the state of the literature your thesis contributes to.

Frame your research in a way that highlights the value-added by your work, keeping the characterization of the literature broad yet defensible.

Theoretical Contribution:

Follow with two or three sentences characterizing the theoretical contribution made by your work.

Highlight any key innovations or main theme/theory concepts from the title, emphasizing the central thrust of your argument in a substantive manner.

Methods:

Devote one sentence to briefly outlining the methods you followed.

Avoid expounding standard methods unless your original contribution lies in methodology.

Chapter Summaries:

Summarize the arguments of each substantive chapter (typically chapters 3 to 7 in an eight-chapter thesis) in one sentence each.

Focus on the 'bottom line' import of each chapter for the overall thesis argument, avoiding explicit references to chapter structure.

Conclusion:

Conclude the abstract with two sentences crystallizing the bottom-line conclusions of your final chapter.

Return to the main theory or theme concepts used in the thesis title, evaluating their worth or applicability based on empirical findings or applied analysis.

Consistency and Alignment:

Ensure consistency in language between the abstract, thesis title, and chapter headings.

Watch out for mismatches in conceptual or thematic elements across these components.

Writing the abstract early in the revision process can provide clarity and direction. Universities often require an early version of the abstract, which serves as a helpful stimulus and aids in the examination process.

The first chapter (plus any other lead-in chapter)

The first chapter, often referred to as the introduction, plays a crucial role in establishing the theoretical framework of your thesis. Here's how you can approach crafting this chapter:

Define Intellectual Themes:

Identify a small number of intellectual themes stemming from the central question of your thesis.

These themes could encompass theoretical positions, methodological innovations, or empirical research findings.

Aim for two, three, or four themes to maintain clarity and focus. If you have too many themes, consider consolidating or nesting them within broader categories.

Framing the Themes:

In the opening chapter, frame each theme by summarizing existing literature and outlining what other authors have said about them.

Anticipate how these themes will be further explored and discussed in subsequent chapters without giving away the specific arguments or findings.

Avoid Potted Versions:

Refrain from providing condensed versions of your later arguments in the introduction. Doing so may oversimplify or misrepresent the complexity of your main points.

Instead, establish linkages between the themes introduced in the first chapter and their relevance to your research throughout the thesis.

By carefully defining and framing the intellectual themes in the opening chapter, you lay the groundwork for a coherent and compelling exploration of your research topic in the subsequent chapters.

The conclusion sections of the middle chapters

In the conclusion sections of each substantive chapter, you have the opportunity to connect the specific findings and discussions back to the overarching themes introduced in the opening chapters. Here's how you can effectively link these sections:

Selective Theme Connection:

Choose one or two themes from the opening chapters that are directly relevant to the content of the specific chapter.

Avoid trying to cover all thesis themes in each chapter's conclusion. Instead, focus on the themes that are most pertinent to the chapter's content and role within the thesis.

Authentic Integration:

Ensure that the themes you connect to in the conclusions are genuinely relevant to the materials covered in the chapter.

Adapt the discussion to the specific role the chapter plays in the thesis as a whole, avoiding mechanistic or inauthentic approaches.

Stand-Back Mode:

Shift the focus away from detailed research discussions and bring out the chapter's key findings in a broader, stand-back mode.

Avoid substantive discussions of material from other chapters, but make small sideways links to chapters relevant to the same themes.

Structural Checks:

Use the conclusion sections to review the structural integrity of your thesis.

Ensure that each chapter has a distinct role and function, avoiding overlaps in content or jurisdiction with neighboring chapters.

Aim for a "say it once, say it right" pattern of chapter organization, assigning clear functions to each chapter.

Consider the necessity of a separate methods chapter, and evaluate whether its content could be integrated into a research methods appendix.

By effectively linking the conclusion sections of each chapter to the overarching themes of the thesis and ensuring structural coherence, you enhance the clarity and impact of your research narrative.

The final chapter

The final chapter of your thesis serves as a crucial endpoint, requiring careful attention to ensure it effectively concludes your research narrative. Here are some key points to consider when crafting this chapter:

Reprising Themes:

Begin by revisiting the themes or theory ideas introduced in the opening chapter(s), grounding the discussion in the experiences and findings of the middle chapters.

Ensure that each theme discussion reflects what has been demonstrated by your research and its relevance to the central thesis question.

Achievements and Contributions:

Address what your research has achieved and how it has advanced professional discussion in your field.

Avoid repeating detailed accounts from the middle chapters; instead, focus on comparing across chapters, connecting key messages, and synthesizing findings.

Grouping and Opening Out:

Group themes together under broader labels or higher-order issues to provide a cohesive overview.

Open out into a discussion of relevant wider professional debates and controversies, considering potential directions for future research.

Final Checks:

Ensure that your main text adheres to the required length, typically around four-fifths of the formal university limit.

If necessary, make cuts to reduce word count, bearing in mind that less can often be more impactful.

Use this stage to refine and adjust your intellectual focus, keeping faith with your research while acknowledging necessary revisions and developments.

Avoid Overcommitment:

Resist the temptation to introduce new elements or research endeavors at this late stage unless essential for the viability of the thesis.

Recognize that your work is in its final configuration for good reasons, and focus on defining appropriate boundaries while leaving room for future exploration.

By carefully shaping your final chapter to provide a coherent conclusion and reflect on the significance of your research, you ensure that your thesis reaches a satisfying and impactful endpoint.

Submitting the thesis and choosing examiners

 I used to be indecisive, but now I’m not so sure. Boscoe Pertwee 

Submitting your thesis and choosing examiners are critical steps in the final stages of your doctoral journey. Here are some key points to consider:

Submission Procedures:

Familiarize yourself with your university's specific submission requirements well in advance.

Ensure that your thesis adheres to all formatting guidelines, including proper placement of charts, tables, references, and appendices.

Obtain necessary signatures from your supervisors or advisers to certify the originality and approval of your work.

Examination Process:

Understand that the examination process can be slow-moving, typically taking six weeks to three months for examiners to review your thesis.

Be mindful of submission deadlines, especially considering the restricted examination periods during summer terms.Recognize the importance and irreversibility of the examination stage, as

 you usually have only two attempts to pass your doctoral assessment.

Choosing Examiners:

In British-style and Commonwealth university systems, examiners are typically senior individuals in your discipline who have not advised you previously.

Consider influencing the selection of examiners by providing input to your supervisor or faculty board.

Look for examiners who possess relevant expertise, seniority, and non-neurotic traits conducive to fair and constructive assessment.

Aim for a balance of examiners with different skills and subject backgrounds to ensure comprehensive evaluation of your thesis.

Navigating the Process:

Engage with your profession early on to identify potential examiners and assess their suitability.

Discuss possible permutations of examiners with your supervisor to plan ahead effectively.

Be cautious about sharing thesis chapters with potential examiners to avoid disqualification due to conflicts of interest.

Maintaining Balance:

Ensure that selected examiners are reasonably balanced personalities to prevent conflicts or dominance during the examination process.

By carefully navigating the submission and examination stages and selecting appropriate examiners, you can increase the likelihood of a successful outcome for your doctoral thesis.

The final oral examination (viva)

The final oral examination, commonly referred to as the viva, marks a significant milestone in the doctoral journey. Here are some key insights into this crucial phase:

Anticipation and Preparation:

Research students often anticipate the viva well before its actual occurrence, considering how their work will be perceived and defended.

While this anticipation can be helpful in refining the thesis, it's essential to avoid slipping into thesis paranoia, which can lead to unnecessary length and density.

Variations Across University Systems:

The importance and format of the oral examination vary across university systems.

In the United States, it's a semi-public occasion typically held after private committee discussions, offering students a high level of certainty regarding their outcome.

European systems may feature a public defense, but the decision is usually reached privately beforehand.

Expectations and Realities of the Viva:

Contrary to expectations, the viva is often a general conversation among examiners, focusing on high-level aspects rather than minutiae.

While examiners may identify minor issues like spelling errors or grammatical mistakes, the emphasis is more on understanding the thesis as a whole.

Examiners' Concerns and Objectives:

Examiners may harbor fundamental doubts about the thesis's novelty, validity, or broader implications.

They aim to ensure the thesis meets doctoral standards, contributes meaningfully to the field, and reflects the candidate's independent expertise.

Role of the Viva in Clarification and Resolution:

The viva provides an opportunity for examiners to engage directly with the candidate, clarify doubts, and assess their understanding and expertise.

Through face-to-face interaction, examiners gain insights into the candidate's capabilities, which can alleviate any lingering doubts about granting the doctorate.

Outcomes and Revisions:

Following the viva, examiners may require minor revisions, which are typically manageable and consistent with passing the thesis.

In cases of major reservations, the thesis may be referred for significant revisions, but candidates are provided with detailed feedback to guide the revision process.

Strategies for Success:

Candidates should maintain faith in their research while responding flexibly to examiners' criticisms.

Practicing "Defence in depth" involves acknowledging concerns, engaging with feedback, and demonstrating the value of the research while avoiding stubbornness.

By understanding the dynamics of the viva and adopting effective strategies, candidates can navigate this final hurdle successfully on their path to earning a doctoral degree.

In the final stages before printing your thesis, it's crucial to consider how to navigate the oral examination and address potential concerns of the examiners. Here are some key strategies to keep in mind:

Acknowledging Examiners' Expertise and Perspectives:

Ensure your thesis does not unnecessarily antagonize the examiners. Incorporate relevant publications from their areas of expertise subtly into your bibliography and refer to them non-controversially in the opening chapter.

Avoid gratuitously attacking schools of thought closely associated with any of the examiners.

Responding to Critical Feedback in the Oral Exam:

Acknowledge valid points raised by examiners and express how their critiques will stimulate your thinking.

Attempt to reframe critical arguments in a less threatening manner while defending your research approach.

Highlighting Resource Limitations:

Clarify that your research is a doctoral thesis conducted with minimal resources, not a large-scale funded project.

Emphasize the achievements made despite resource constraints and the extensive effort invested.

Referring to Future Publication Plans:

Mention the possibility of publishing your work in journal articles or a book.

Assure examiners that any significant points raised will be addressed in future publications stemming from the thesis.

Recognizing Warning Signs and Responding Appropriately:

Be cautious if an examiner repeatedly insists on certain points or expresses skepticism about your responses.

Acknowledge the importance of their feedback and respond flexibly while attempting to limit the scope of requested changes.

Utilizing Supervisor Support:

Seek assistance from your supervisor in preparing for the oral exam and addressing examiners' concerns.

Your supervisor can help in minimizing demands for revisions and ensuring any required changes are clear and achievable.

As you approach the conclusion of your doctoral journey, meticulous preparation and strategic engagement with examiners can greatly influence the outcome of your oral examination. By carefully navigating these interactions, you can increase the likelihood of a successful defense of your thesis.

9. Publishing your research 

What good is a good idea if no one ever hears it? AT & T advert  

publishing your doctoral research:

Submit Papers to Professional Journals:

Identify relevant journals in your field that publish research similar to yours.

Follow the journal's submission guidelines carefully and prepare your manuscript accordingly.

Be prepared for multiple rounds of revisions based on feedback from peer reviewers.

Persistence is key; don't be discouraged by rejection, and consider revising and resubmitting to other journals.

Consider Transforming Your Thesis into a Monograph:

Evaluate whether your thesis lends itself well to a book format and if there is a gap in the existing literature that it addresses.

Research publishers that specialize in your field and are open to considering doctoral dissertations for publication.

Prepare a proposal outlining the scope, audience, and significance of your book, along with a sample chapter or two.

Be prepared for a rigorous peer review process and potential revisions before acceptance.

Recognize the Time and Effort Involved:

Understand that both journal publication and book monograph processes take time and may extend beyond your formal graduation date.

Allocate sufficient time for revising and resubmitting manuscripts, responding to feedback, and navigating the publication process.

Stay organized and proactive in managing submissions and correspondence with editors and publishers.

Seek Guidance and Support:

Consult with your academic advisors, mentors, or peers who have experience in publishing their research.

Attend workshops, seminars, or conferences on academic publishing to gain insights and practical tips.

Utilize resources provided by your university or academic institutions, such as writing centers or publishing support services.

By following these points and remaining persistent, you can increase the chances of successfully publishing your doctoral research and contributing to the academic discourse in your field.

Writing and submitting journal papers 

How odd it is that anyone should not see that all observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any service. Charles Darwin 

writing and submitting journal papers:

Understanding the Journals Market:

Familiarize yourself with the hierarchy of journals in your discipline, ranging from excellent to marginal.

Consider factors such as methods of refereeing, citation scores, journal type, and circulation to gauge a journal's reputation.

Recognize that different journals have varying standards for publication and peer review processes.

Refereeing Systems:

Peer review is crucial for maintaining quality in academic publishing.

Top-tier journals typically employ rigorous double-blind peer review processes, involving multiple well-qualified referees.

Lower-tier journals may have less strict review processes or operate within specific cliques or ideological frameworks.

Citation Scores:

Journals' impact is often measured by citation scores, indicating how frequently articles are referenced by others.

High impact scores signify greater visibility and influence within the academic community.

Circulation and Journal Type:

Larger-circulation journals with broad missions often have greater visibility and longevity.

Specialist journals may have smaller circulations but cater to niche audiences within specific subfields.

Time Lags:

The publication process involves significant time lags, from initial submission to eventual publication.

Factors such as editorial backlog and acceptance rates can affect the duration from acceptance to publication.

Editorial Influence:

Changes in editorial leadership can impact a journal's direction and reputation.

Editorial boards may also influence a journal's standing within the academic community.

Professional Ownership vs. Commercial Ownership:

Journals affiliated with professional associations often carry higher prestige than those owned by commercial publishers.

Professional journals may have larger readerships among association members.

Quality of Production:

Consider the visual appeal and production quality of a journal, as it reflects on the presentation of your work.

Modern design, clear layouts, and accessibility are desirable traits for journals.

Electronic Publishing:

Many journals offer electronic access in addition to traditional print formats.

Web-only journals are emerging as alternatives, especially in fields like information science and business studies.

Understanding these aspects can help you navigate the journal publishing process effectively and target journals that align with your research goals and standards.

Appreciating what gets published

Understanding what journals look for in a publishable paper is crucial for successfully navigating the academic publishing process. Here's a breakdown of key criteria and considerations:

Originality or novelty of approach:

Journals seek papers that offer fresh perspectives, innovative methodologies, or novel insights.

Replicating previous studies without significant advancement may hinder acceptance.

Scholarship and accuracy:

Papers should accurately summarize existing research literature relevant to the study's focus.

Incomplete coverage, partial referencing, or misrepresentations of previous literature may raise concerns.

Quality of writing:

Readability is essential. Papers should be well-written with clear language and structure.

Obvious grammatical errors or a dull writing style may negatively impact referees' opinions.

Research methods used:

Journals value papers that employ rigorous methodologies and contribute to methodological advancements.

Papers relying solely on assertive arguments without substantial evidence may face skepticism.

Theoretical interest:

Theoretical contributions should offer meaningful insights, challenge existing paradigms, or propose new frameworks.

Purely speculative or unsupported theoretical assertions may receive less favorable reviews.

Interest and importance to a professional readership:

Papers should address topics of relevance and significance to the discipline.

Boring or niche topics with limited appeal may struggle to gain acceptance.

Relevance for the journal's mission:

Journals have specific scopes and missions. Papers should align with the journal's focus and audience.

Material too far from the journal's core interests may face rejection.

Interest for a wider audience:

Papers that bridge academia and broader professional fields or appeal to a general readership are valued.

Accessibility and relevance beyond specialized academia may enhance a paper's appeal.

In addition to main articles, consider shorter formats like research notes, comments, short-article journals, and review articles as avenues for publication, especially early in your academic career.

By carefully aligning your research with these criteria and considering the preferences and scopes of target journals, you can increase the likelihood of successful publication and contribute meaningfully to your academic field.

Getting your material published 

The journey from conceiving research to getting it published, emphasizes the stark contrast between the idealized perception of publishing and the often harsh reality:

Psychological Barrier: Acknowledge the psychological barrier faced by new authors due to the idealized perception of publishing and the actual challenges involved in research.

Reality of Research: Highlight the discrepancy between the myth of research presented in academic papers and the actual process, which involves dissatisfaction, false starts, and demoralizing periods.

Publication Challenges: Discuss the challenges faced in the publication process, such as receiving strong criticisms from anonymous referees and editors, and the need for revisions to meet their demands.

Choosing a Journal: Guide authors to choose journals strategically based on factors like prestige, acceptance rates, and alignment with the paper's content, advising against aiming too high initially to avoid lengthy rejections.

Paper Formatting: Emphasize the importance of adhering to journal guidelines for formatting, length, and style, including concise writing and self-contained arguments.

Handling Feedback: Encourage authors to anticipate and address criticisms before submission, seek feedback from peers and supervisors, and respond constructively to referees' comments.

Resubmission Process: Advise authors on responding to editors' requests for revisions, noting that resubmissions often lead to acceptance if changes are made as requested.

Managing Rejections: Counsel authors to learn from rejections by analyzing feedback, revising the paper accordingly, and submitting to a different journal if necessary.

Ethical Considerations: Warn against unethical practices like simultaneous submissions to multiple journals and dual publication, stressing the importance of integrity in academic publishing.

Long-term Strategy: Recommend developing a publication portfolio gradually, focusing on paperizing thesis chapters and planning future publications strategically to maximize impact and avoid professional setbacks.

By following these recommendations, authors can more effectively negotiate the complexity of the publication process and boost their chances of getting their study published.

Navigating the process of having your study published can be difficult, especially given the striking contrast between the idealized image of the research process and the sometimes chaotic reality. It's critical to know that the path from first idea to published paper is rarely easy and is filled with obstacles, delays, and revisions.

One important point raised in the extract is the gap between the idealized myth of research and the actual practice of conducting research. The reality entails beginning with a vague discontent or dissatisfaction, confronting difficulties in creating and refining ideas, working through the research process, and encountering roadblocks during the publication process. This emphasizes the value of patience, endurance, and adaptation in navigating the intricacies of academic publishing.

The book sheds light on the process of revising and submitting papers to journals, including the need of carefully selecting target publications, adhering to their formatting and length criteria, and responding to criticism from editors and referees. It also emphasizes the need of managing expectations and accepting that rejection is an inevitable part of the publication process, forcing authors to learn from feedback and make required modifications.

Furthermore, it is critical to follow ethical standards in academic publishing, such as avoiding concurrent submissions to several journals and assuring correct attribution and permissions for republishing information. Understanding these conventions and standards promotes scholarly communication honesty and professionalism.

Overall, while the path to publication can be difficult, researchers who persevere, plan strategically, and are willing to learn and adapt can improve their odds of efficiently distributing their findings. 

Re-working your thesis as a book

Interviewer: What came first, the lyrics or the music? 

George Gershwin: What came first was the contract. 8

your thesis's transformation into a book should you approach potential publishers. Here's a breakdown of key steps and considerations to guide you:

Understanding the Purpose: Recognize that the primary goal of turning your thesis into a book is to disseminate your research to a broader academic audience. While financial gain is unlikely, the academic recognition and impact are substantial.

Choosing the Right Publisher: Consider various types of publishers, from major university presses to smaller commercial ones. Each has its pros and cons in terms of prestige, distribution, and publishing process.

Crafting a Book Proposal: Develop a compelling book proposal that highlights the significance of your research, its potential readership, and how you plan to adapt the thesis into a book format. Emphasize the accessibility and relevance of your work.

Adapting Your Thesis: Understand that significant alterations are necessary for your thesis to succeed as a book. Aim to reduce the length, making it more concise and accessible. Remove redundant or less engaging sections, and consider restructuring to enhance readability.

Enhancing Readership Appeal: Identify aspects of your thesis that can be expanded or updated to attract a wider readership. This could involve incorporating additional research, updating outdated information, or framing the content in a more engaging manner.

Considering Additional Content: Evaluate whether new sections or chapters can improve the book's overall value and appeal. This might include contextualizing your research within current debates or addressing gaps in the original thesis.

Preparing for Submission: Before submitting your proposal to publishers, ensure that your manuscript is polished and well-prepared. Seek feedback from mentors, colleagues, and advisors to refine your approach and increase your chances of acceptance.

Navigating the Publishing Process: Be prepared for a potentially lengthy and competitive publishing process. Understand the timelines involved, from submission to publication, and be proactive in promoting your book once it's released.

By following these steps and remaining diligent throughout the process, you can effectively rework your thesis into a book that makes a meaningful contribution to your field of study.

what your book proposal should include:

Academic Rationale: Clearly articulate the intellectual significance of your book for your discipline or research area. Highlight positive feedback from distinguished examiners and supervisors, emphasizing that the proposed book is a thoroughly reworked version of your original research.

Book Structure: Provide details on the overall length of the text, chapter headings, and lengths of each chapter.

Contents Description: Write a brief overview of each chapter, focusing on the key contributions of the book.

Market Rationale: Identify the target audience and estimate realistic sales prospects for a hardback edition. Justify your estimations based on potential readership in university libraries, professional academics, and possibly public libraries.

Marketing Strategy: Offer a concise plan for promoting the book, including potential review outlets, conferences, and academic networks. Highlight your commitment to actively promote the book and engage with potential readers.

Timetable for Manuscript Delivery: Provide a realistic schedule for delivering the final manuscript, including time for referee feedback and revisions. Emphasize your commitment to meeting deadlines.

Specimen Chapter: Include your best chapter to demonstrate the quality and appeal of your work. Ensure it's well-written, relevant, and fully adapted for a book format.

Contract Considerations: Discuss the importance of a proper contract, emphasizing clauses related to publication rights, royalties, and length of commitment. Highlight potential risks and seek advice if needed.

By addressing these points in your book proposal, you'll present a comprehensive and compelling case to potential publishers, increasing your chances of securing a publishing deal for your thesis-turned-book.

 

Afterword 

‘If a thing is worth doing’, said G. K. Chesterton, ‘it’s worth doing badly.’

As Nietzche recognized: ‘Ultimately, no one can extract from things, books included, more than he [or she] already knows. What one has no access to through experience one has no ear for.’2

It is, in short, a ‘crib’ book, of which Michael Oakeshott once remarked: ‘Now the character of a crib is that its author must have an educated man’s [or woman’s] knowledge of the language, that he must prostitute his genius (if he has any) as a translator, and that it is powerless to save the ignorant reader from all possibility of mistake.’

As A. D. Sertillanges once wrote: ‘A book is a signal, a stimulant, a helper, an initiator – it is not a substitute and it is not a chain.’

Chesterton's Insight: Start by quoting G.K. Chesterton's statement about the value of doing something even if it's done imperfectly. Discuss how this idea has resonated with you throughout the writing process.

Acknowledgment of Limitations: Admit that while you hoped for more from this book, you recognize its limitations. Emphasize that the advice offered should not be applied mechanically but rather considered thoughtfully based on individual circumstances.

Nietzsche's Perspective: Reference Nietzsche's idea that individuals can only extract from books what they already know or have experienced. Highlight the importance of personal context in interpreting and applying advice.

Warning Against Misconstruction: Warn readers against misconstruing the book as a comprehensive guide. Compare it to a crib book, emphasizing the need for personal commitment and adaptation when applying its suggestions.

Comparison to Machiavelli's "The Prince": Mention Oakeshott's criticism of crib books, noting that even esteemed works like Machiavelli's "The Prince" were once viewed in a similar light. Emphasize the validity and importance of crib books in advancing knowledge and facilitating progress.

Encouragement for Readers: Encourage readers to approach the book as a signal, stimulant, and initiator rather than a substitute or chain. Empower them to use the advice provided as a tool for their own growth and development.

By incorporating these points, your Afterword will provide a thoughtful reflection on the book's purpose, limitations, and potential impact on readers.

Glossary of maxims, terms and phrases 

All good maxims are in the world. We only need to apply them. Blaise Pascal 

From the glossary, the most important maxims and terms for effective authoring are:

Analytic Structure: Organizing text into logical or typological categories devised by the author.

Argumentative Structure: Presenting two or more viewpoints identified by the author, often in a "for and against" pattern.

Authoring: The complete process of producing a finished piece of text, including drafting, revising, and publishing.

Bibliography: An exhaustive list of all cited works, arranged alphabetically by authors' main names.

Big Book Thesis: A long dissertation, typically limited to 100,000 words, constructed in an integrated, book form.

Classical Model PhD: Traditional British, Commonwealth, and European model of the doctorate, involving a long period of research culminating in a "big book" thesis.

Data Reduction: Techniques for screening out unnecessary detail in numerical information.

Descriptive Structure: Organizing text by presenting materials in a sequence given outside the author.

Dissertation: The final stage of a PhD, involving a long piece of original analysis.

Effective Digits: The numerals which vary from one number to the next in a table.

Emergency Stop Test: A check on how well a text is organized and signposted.

Endnotes: Notes placed at the end of a chapter or book rather than at the bottom of each page.

Examiner: A senior person who decides whether a student's work reaches doctoral standard.

Final Oral Examination: The stage where examiners formally discuss a student's thesis with them.

Focus Down Model: A sequence for organizing a thesis that begins with a long literature review and progressively narrows the scope.

Footnotes: Notes placed at the bottom of the page where a note number occurs.

High Impact Start: A dramatic or attention-grabbing way of beginning a chapter or section.

Lead-In Materials: Text providing context or background for what is to come next.

Main Adviser: The staff member who principally guides a PhD student completing the dissertation.

Minor Adviser: A staff member who works with research students, typically less intensively than the main adviser.

These terms encapsulate essential concepts and techniques for effective academic writing and thesis structuring.

Recap and Appreciation:

The book provides a complete guide on good authorship, aimed mostly at PhD students. The book's thorough glossary covers a wide range of key terms and concepts, giving clarity and advice as you navigate the complexity of academic writing and research. Each topic is methodically explained, providing tips for framing a thesis, collecting facts, and developing appealing arguments.

The book emphasizes the value of several writing strategies, including high-impact beginnings, lead-in and lead-out items, and the use of signposts to direct readers through the text. It also discusses the complexities of reference, emphasizing the importance of preserving consistency and clarity in citation formats.

One of the book's most notable aspects is its practical approach to writing, which encourages readers to "get it down, then get it organized," highlighting the need of composing rapidly and revising later. This continuous process of writing and revising is repeated throughout the book, emphasizing the iterative nature of academic writing and the value of perseverance in the face of adversity.

Furthermore, the book recognizes the intrinsic difficulties of authorship, cautioning against the myth that writing can be mechanized or reduced to a formula. Instead, it encourages readers to view writing as a creative and iterative process, acknowledging that everyone's path to proficiency will be unique.

In summary, it is an invaluable resource for doctorate students and researchers commencing on the journey of academic writing. Its extensive lexicon, practical ideas, and nuanced approach make it an invaluable resource for those navigating the complexities of scientific communication.

Index Evaluation:

"Authoring a PhD" stands out for its thorough treatment of the dissertation writing process. Dunleavy's simple and accessible writing style makes complicated subjects understandable to both new researchers and experienced academics. The book's emphasis on practical solutions and real-world examples makes it a valuable resource for PhD students facing thesis writing issues.

Conclusion:

Finally, Patrick Dunleavy's "Authoring a PhD" is an invaluable resource for doctoral candidates navigating the intricacies of writing a thesis or dissertation. By mixing intelligent guidance with practical strategies, Dunleavy gives readers the skills they need to excel in their academic pursuits. Students will find this book to be a wonderful companion throughout their PhD journey, whether they are just starting out or nearing the end.

[ Rating: ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ (5/5)]