From Translatio to Translation: Reconceptualizing Translation in the Early Modern Period
The medieval idea of translatio is very different from modern translation, which includes more extensive relocation and contextual adaptation. The alterations made to medieval writings are irreconcilable with the contemporary idea that meaning is preserved through translation. According to this article, the resurgence of Hellenistic science in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries led to a new semiotic theory that evolved from the rhetorical to the Platonic perspective on meaning, influencing the transition from the medieval to the modern mindset. Both secular and religious contexts are used to analyze the ramifications of this shift.
1. Introduction
- This Blogger post examines how the concept of translation evolved from the medieval understanding of translatio to the Early Modern idea of interlingual translation.
- We will see that this was not a mere linguistic shift but a profound semiotic and epistemological transformation, shaped by theology, philosophy, science, and politics.
- Key question: When and how did “translation” come to mean the stable transfer of meaning across languages, instead of the broader, more mutable concept of translatio?
2. The Medieval Concept of Translatio
Translatio was far broader than our modern sense of “translation.”
- It encompassed movement, transposition, relocation (e.g., relics, souls, empires, learning).
- Example: translatio studii et imperii — the transfer of knowledge and empire from Greece → Rome → Christian Europe.
Textual practices like glossing, commentary, paraphrase, compilation, exegesis were part of translatio, with no sharp line separating them from interlingual translation.
The translator had no stable identity, often collapsed into roles of scribe, commentator, or compiler.
Crucially: Translation implied change. Meaning was expected to mutate as texts traveled across contexts. This transformationality reflects:
- Manuscript culture (no identical copies).
- Theological worldview: with each transmission, truth declined from divine perfection.
- Embedded semiotics: meaning was inseparable from form and circumstance.
3. The Semiotic Shift: The Rise of the “Transcendental Signified”
The Early Modern period brought a new semiotic model:
- Meaning as invariant, universal, detachable from form.
- Rooted in Platonic philosophy but reactivated through:
- Recovery of Hellenistic science via Arabic–Latin translations in Spain/Sicily.
- Scholastic debates on universals (realism vs. nominalism).
- Early modern science and Reformation theology.
- Recovery of Hellenistic science via Arabic–Latin translations in Spain/Sicily.
- Scholastic debates on universals (realism vs. nominalism).
- Early modern science and Reformation theology.
Protestant Reformation: vernacular Bibles treated as the Word of God itself, not derivative constructs. → Theological equivalence doctrine.
Scientific Revolution: Royal Society’s “plain style” and motto nullius in verba reinforced belief in direct access to truth beyond language.
Port-Royal Grammar: argued that all languages reflect the same universal logical structure → reinforced idea of translation as change of clothing for invariant meaning.
4. Humanism and Early Modern Translation Culture
Humanism revived Greek/Latin texts and emphasized eloquence.
Key figures:
- Leonardo Bruni (1426): On the Correct Way to Translate, distinguished traducere from interpretari, emphasizing the translator’s agency. Translation as two-stage process: decoding → recoding.
- King Duarte of Portugal: adapted Bruni’s principles for vernacular Portuguese, asserting cultural value of the vernacular.
- Étienne Dolet (1540): emphasized clarity, naturalness, and rhetorical polish → executed partly for his radical positions.
- Joachim Périon: blurred line between translation and oratory, prioritizing Ciceronian eloquence over fidelity.
Result: tension between rhetoric and philology.
- Rhetorical model: adaptation, persuasion, audience-centered.
- Philological model: faithful recovery of ancient meaning.
Culmination in belles infidèles (France) and libertine translators (England): highly adaptive, elegant, often unfaithful renderings.
5. Sacred Translation Debates
- Wyclif, Hus, Luther, Tyndale: insisted on vernacular Scripture → democratization of sacred text.
- Principle of transparency: Bible should read as if not translated at all.
- Counter-Reformation: Jesuits translated catechisms/hagiographies, using radical accommodation (e.g., Chinese rites controversy).
- Over time: Catholic Church also shifted toward transcendentalist model, with Latin as the universal gold standard.
6. Broader Implications
This reconceptualization of translation mirrors economic history:
- Transition from use-value to exchange-value parallels the move from embedded meanings to universal equivalence.
- Both translation and money rely on a universal equivalent that allows commensurability.
Early Modern translation thus reflects globalization, secularization, and rationalization.
7. Contemporary Reflections
Modern Translation Studies is again questioning the “semantic invariant”:
- Derrida: critique of the “transcendental signified.”
- Tymoczko: non-Western embedded models of meaning.
- Cronin: eco-translation critiques equivalence as extractivism.
We may be entering a new era closer to medieval embeddedness than Early Modern universality.
8. Conclusion
The Early Modern shift from translatio to “translation” represents:
- A narrowing of scope (from transposition to interlingual transfer).
- A redefinition of meaning (from mutable/embedded to invariant/transcendental).
Translation became a scientific, theological, and political battleground, shaping Western modernity itself.
For us in Translation Studies, the lesson is to recognize how deeply historical and ideological our concept of “translation” is, and to remain open to alternative models across cultures and epochs.
9. Discussion Questions
1. How does the medieval understanding of translatio challenge modern notions of fidelity?
- Translatio as transformation: Medieval translation often involved adaptation, commentary, and cultural mediation, not word-for-word fidelity.
- Example: Biblical texts translated into Latin (Vulgate) incorporated interpretive expansions to suit ecclesiastical authority.
- Challenge to modern fidelity: Modern views prioritize literal accuracy, but medieval practice embraced meaning transfer over surface fidelity.
- Key clue: Fidelity ≠ literalness; medieval translators prioritized intelligibility, authority, and cultural resonance.
2. To what extent was the Reformation a translation movement as much as a theological one?
- Scripture in vernacular: Reformers like Luther translated the Bible into German to make theology accessible.
- Translation as agency: Translation became a vehicle for religious reform and democratization of knowledge.
- Example: Luther’s German Bible shaped not just religious belief but the German language itself.
- Clue: Theology + translation = social, cultural, and linguistic transformation.
3. Do today’s digital and global contexts bring us back toward “transformational” translation rather than “invariant” translation?
- Digital adaptability: AI, localization, and globalization require flexible translation for diverse audiences.
- Transformational translation: Adjusting meaning, style, and cultural references to new contexts.
- Example: Subtitling for global streaming platforms involves cultural adaptation beyond literal wording.
- Clue: Invariant (literal) translation struggles with context; digital/global demands transformation.
4. How might economic metaphors of equivalence and exchange reshape our understanding of translation ethics?
- Translation as “value exchange”: Words as commodities, cultural capital as currency.
- Ethical stakes: Decisions about what to preserve, adapt, or “trade” affect cultural integrity.
- Example: Translating marketing content ethically vs. culturally misrepresenting a product.
- Clue: Economics metaphors highlight responsibility, negotiation, and trade-offs in translation choices.
