Dimensions of Variations in Language Use: A Sociolinguistic Perspective
Introduction
Let us study the dimensions of variation in the use of languages, an essential topic in sociolinguistics. Language is not static; it is dynamic, shaped by social, cultural, and situational contexts. Variations occur across dimensions such as geography, social class, gender, ethnicity, context, and individual identity. We'll explore these dimensions with examples from English and Urdu.
1. Regional Variation (Dialectology)
Definition: Regional variation arises due to geographic boundaries that result in different dialects of the same language.
English Example:
British English: "lorry" (truck) vs. American English: "truck".
Pronunciation differences: British "bath" /bɑːθ/ vs. American /bæθ/.
Urdu Example:
Variations between Lahori Urdu ("aap kahan jaa rahe hain?") and Karachi Urdu, where more colloquial phrases like "aap kahan jaa rahay ho?" are common.
Regional accents, such as Punjabi-inflected Urdu vs. Pashto-inflected Urdu.
2. Social Class and Sociolects
Definition: Language use often reflects social class, with sociolects indicating the speech patterns of particular social groups.
English Example:
In the UK, upper-class individuals often use Received Pronunciation (RP), while working-class individuals might use Cockney or Estuary English.
"I ain’t got none" (non-standard English) is often associated with lower socioeconomic groups.
African-American English: Double Negatives: I didn’t see nothing.
3. Gender-Based Variation
Definition: Men and women may use language differently, reflecting societal norms and gender roles.
English Example:
Women are often observed using more polite forms: "Could you please help me?" vs. men using "Can you help me?".
Use of tag questions: Women might say, "It’s nice, isn’t it?" more frequently than men.
Urdu Example:
Women tend to use softer expressions, e.g., "maaf kijiye" (excuse me), compared to men’s blunt "maaf karo".
Terms of respect (e.g., aap vs. tum) are more commonly maintained by women in casual settings.
4. Ethnic Variation (Ethnolects)
Definition: Ethnicity influences language, creating ethnolects—varieties associated with particular ethnic groups.
English Example:
African American Vernacular English (AAVE): Unique grammar ("He don’t know nothing") and vocabulary ("lit" for exciting).
Urdu Example:
Urdu spoken by Muhajirs (migrants from India) has a distinct vocabulary and pronunciation compared to Urdu spoken by native Punjabis or Sindhis.
Influence of regional languages like Pashto in mixing phrases such as "Zama khayal hai" in Pashto-inflected Urdu.
5. Contextual Variation (Registers)
Definition: Register refers to variations in language based on formality and purpose.
English Example:
Formal: "I am writing to inquire about your services."
Informal: "Hey, can you tell me about your stuff?"
Urdu Example:
Formal: "Mazrat chahta hoon" (I apologize).
Informal: "Sorry bhai" (Sorry, bro).
Professional vs. casual settings often dictate the choice between highly Persianized Urdu ("Faisla kar diya gaya") and colloquial Urdu ("Faisla ho gaya").
6. Individual Variation (Idiolects)
Definition: Every individual has a unique way of speaking, called an idiolect, influenced by personal experience and identity.
English Example:
Variations in filler words: Some say "like" frequently, others use "you know".
Urdu Example:
One speaker might use a mix of Urdu and English ("Woh ek amazing idea tha"), while another sticks to pure Urdu ("Woh ek ajeeb khayal tha").
7. Code-Switching and Code-Mixing
Code-Mixing
Definition: A speaker incorporates elements (words, phrases, or sentences) from one language into another during communication.
Purpose: Often serves as a strategy for ease of expression, emphasizing certain ideas, or filling lexical gaps.
Example in Pakistan:
"Mujhe ek idea discuss karna hai." (Mixing English with Urdu).
Code-Switching
Definition: A switch between two languages or varieties within a conversation, where the speaker alternates based on context or audience.
Types of Code-Switching:
Inter-Sentential: Switching occurs between sentences.
Example: "Main thoda busy hoon. Let me call you back."Intra-Sentential: Switching occurs within the same sentence.
Example: "Kya tumhe pata hai, she’s not coming today?"
Tag-Switching: Inserting tags or phrases from one language.
Example: "Theek hai, right?"
Conversation-Level Code-Switching:
Example: Speaker A: "Aap kahan ja rahe hain?" Speaker B: "To the market."
Formal vs. informal settings often influence the frequency and type of mixing or switching.
Identity Expression: Reflects cultural or social identity (e.g., bilingual individuals mixing languages to assert group membership).
Everyday Conversation: "Khana tayyar hai, come to the table."
Professional Settings: "Yeh report finalize karke Monday tak submit kar dein."
Educational Contexts: Teachers might say: "Yeh topic samajh aaya? If not, let me explain again."
Recap: The practice of switching between languages or language varieties within a conversation.
English and Urdu Example:
In Pakistan, a typical sentence might sound like: "Main kal office nahi jaa raha, because I’m unwell."
Code-switching signifies bilingualism and cultural identity.
Definition: Language evolves over time, reflecting historical changes.
English Example:
Shakespearean English: "Thou art" vs. Modern English: "You are".
Urdu Example:
Classical Urdu: "Zaroorat-e-rafta" (necessity of time) is now simply "Zarurat". “Apka shaghl-e-zeest kia hai?” What do you do? - ‘ ap kia krtay ho?’
Loanwords from English like "television" have replaced older words.
Recap:
Understanding these dimensions helps us appreciate the complexity and richness of language as a social phenomenon. Both English and Urdu provide fascinating examples of how societal factors shape language use. As linguists, our task is to study these variations not just descriptively but also critically, to better understand human communication.
References:
Emike, A. J., Sanni, A., Agu, M. N., & Olusanya, A. M. (2021). Introducing Sociolinguistics. Bulletin of Advanced English Studies (BAES), 6(2).
Mesthrie, R. (Ed.). (2011). The Cambridge handbook of sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Ball, M. J., Mesthrie, R., & Meluzzi, C. (Eds.). (2010). The Routledge handbook of sociolinguistics around the world (pp. 7-25). New York: Routledge.
PART II Asia page 131
Chapter 12:
Satyanath, S. (2010). Sociolinguistics of the Indo-European languages in South Asia: Looking beyond the 60s. In M. J. Ball, R. Mesthrie, & C. Meluzzi (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of sociolinguistics around the world (pp. 146–169). Routledge.
Chapter 13:
Balasubramanian, G., & Arulmozi, S. (2010). Sociolinguistics of Dravidian languages in South Asia. In M. J. Ball, R. Mesthrie, & C. Meluzzi (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of sociolinguistics around the world (pp. 170–190). Routledge.
Discussion Questions:
How does code-switching in Pakistan reflect identity?
Can you think of examples in your community where language reflects social class?
What are the implications of language variation for education and policy-making?
