Course Title: Functional English

Credit Hours: 3
Duration: 16 Weeks
Contact Hours: 48
Level: Undergraduate
Program: BS Governance and Policy Studies, Area Study Center, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad

Lecturer: Riaz Laghari

Functional English: Week 10 - Academic Writing Fundamentals

From Having Ideas to Building Evidence-Based Academic Arguments

1. Week 10 Overview

Central Question

How do we transform information and opinions into clear, organised and academically responsible writing?

By Week 10, students have learned to:

• construct sentences;
• develop paragraphs;
• read critically;
• summarise and paraphrase;
• communicate professionally.

Academic writing brings these abilities together.

The fundamental shift is:

from “What do I think?” to “What can I reasonably claim, and what evidence supports that claim?”

Academic writing is therefore not simply:

difficult English;

nor:

using long words;

nor:

filling pages with information.

It is:

organised reasoning communicated through evidence-based writing.

2. Week 10 in the Course Progression

The course has now moved through a deliberate sequence:

Weeks 1–4: Build language resources

↓

Weeks 5–7: Read, understand, evaluate and compress information

↓

Week 8: Build coherent paragraphs

↓

Week 9: Apply writing skills to professional communication

↓

Week 10: Build academic arguments responsibly

This is the point at which students begin to see writing as:

architecture rather than accumulation.

3. Learning Outcomes

By the end of this session, students should be able to:

• distinguish academic writing from everyday and professional writing;
• identify the purpose, audience and genre of academic writing;
• interpret an assignment question;
• generate and narrow a topic;
• develop a clear thesis or central position;
• create a basic writing plan;
• organise an essay logically;
• write effective introductions;
• construct evidence-based body paragraphs;
• distinguish claims from evidence;
• integrate evidence into their own reasoning;
• write effective conclusions;
• paraphrase and summarise responsibly;
• understand when citation is required;
• recognise plagiarism;
• understand academic integrity;
• use sources without allowing sources to replace their own thinking;
• use AI responsibly while maintaining authorship and intellectual responsibility.

PART I — WHAT IS ACADEMIC WRITING?

4. Academic Writing Is Structured Thinking

Students often ask:

“How can I make my writing more academic?”

The answer is not:

Use more difficult vocabulary.

Academic writing becomes stronger when it demonstrates:

• a clear question;
• a defensible claim;
• logical organisation;
• relevant evidence;
• critical engagement;
• appropriate qualification;
• accurate attribution.

Thus:

Academic writing is a form of disciplined reasoning.

5. Academic Writing vs Other Writing

Feature	Everyday	Professional	Academic
Primary purpose	interaction	action/information	analysis/argument
Audience	familiar/general	colleagues/institutions	academic readers
Tone	conversational	professional	formal/analytical
Evidence	optional	often practical	usually essential
Structure	flexible	functional	deliberately organised
Sources	rarely required	sometimes	frequently required
Main question	What happened?	What needs to happen?	What can we claim and why?

The distinction is not absolute, but it helps students understand genre.

PART II — ACADEMIC WRITING AS AN ARGUMENT

6. The Argumentative Core

A strong academic text often follows:

QUESTION → CLAIM → EVIDENCE → REASONING → CONCLUSION

Example:

Question

Does digital learning improve access to higher education?

Claim

Digital learning can expand access for geographically isolated students.

Evidence

Research identifies remote access as one advantage of online education.

Reasoning

Students who cannot regularly travel to a campus can participate remotely.

Conclusion

Digital learning therefore has the potential to reduce geographical barriers, although access also depends on infrastructure and digital skills.

7. Claim vs Opinion

Opinion

I think universities should use more technology.

Academic claim

Universities can expand educational access through carefully designed digital learning systems.

The second statement can be:

• investigated;
• supported;
• challenged;
• qualified.

That makes it academically useful.

8. The Claim–Evidence–Reasoning Model

Teach students this basic academic unit:

CLAIM

What am I arguing?

EVIDENCE

What supports the claim?

REASONING

Why does the evidence support the claim?

Without reasoning:

evidence becomes decoration.

Without evidence:

the claim becomes unsupported assertion.

9. Example

Claim

Regular formative assessment can improve students' learning.

Evidence

Classroom research has associated frequent feedback with improved opportunities for students to identify and correct weaknesses.

Reasoning

Feedback is useful because it gives learners information about the gap between their current performance and the expected standard.

Conclusion

Formative assessment can therefore support learning when feedback is timely and actionable.

PART III — UNDERSTANDING THE ASSIGNMENT

10. Before Writing: Decode the Question

Students often begin writing before determining:

what the question actually requires.

Academic questions contain command words.

11. Common Academic Command Words

Describe

Tell what something is like.

Explain

Show how or why something happens.

Analyse

Break something into parts and examine relationships.

Compare

Identify similarities and differences.

Contrast

Focus primarily on differences.

Evaluate

Judge strengths, weaknesses or significance using criteria.

Discuss

Explore different dimensions or perspectives.

Critically evaluate

Analyse evidence and perspectives, then make a reasoned judgement.

Argue

Develop and defend a position.

12. Example

Question:

“Discuss the role of social media in contemporary political communication.”

Students should identify:

Topic

social media

Context

contemporary political communication

Task

discuss

Therefore, the essay should not simply:

define social media.

It should explore:

• functions;
• benefits;
• limitations;
• competing perspectives;
• implications.

PART IV — FROM TOPIC TO THESIS

13. Topic ≠ Thesis

Topic

Artificial intelligence in education

Too broad.

Research question

How is AI changing university students' writing practices?

More focused.

Thesis

Generative AI can support university students' writing by providing rapid feedback and language assistance, but its educational value depends on students' ability to evaluate AI-generated output and retain independent responsibility for reasoning and authorship.

Now there is an argument.

14. What Makes a Good Thesis?

A useful thesis is:

Clear

The reader knows what you argue.

Specific

It is sufficiently focused.

Defensible

A reasonable person could disagree.

Relevant

It directly answers the question.

Directional

It suggests how the argument will develop.

15. The Thesis Test

Ask:

Can someone reasonably disagree with my thesis?

If no:

it may be a fact rather than an argument.

Example:

“Universities use technology.”

Not really an argument.

Better:

Universities should integrate digital technologies selectively rather than assuming that technological adoption automatically improves learning.

Now the writer has something to establish.

PART V — PLANNING ACADEMIC WRITING

16. Never Start with the First Paragraph

A common student habit:

Open Word → type introduction → hope an argument emerges.

Better:

Think → plan → organise → write → revise.

17. The Academic Writing Blueprint

Before writing, students should identify:

1. Question

What exactly am I answering?

2. Thesis

What is my central answer?

3. Main arguments

What are my 2–4 major reasons?

4. Evidence

What supports each reason?

5. Counterargument

What reasonable objection exists?

6. Response

How will I address it?

7. Conclusion

What follows from the argument?

18. The Essay Skeleton

A basic academic essay:

INTRODUCTION

Context

↓

Problem/question

↓

Thesis

↓

BODY 1

Argument 1

Evidence

Analysis

↓

BODY 2

Argument 2

Evidence

Analysis

↓

BODY 3

Argument 3

Evidence

Analysis

↓

COUNTERARGUMENT

Alternative view

Response

↓

CONCLUSION

PART VI — INTRODUCTIONS

19. What Does an Introduction Do?

A strong introduction should orient the reader.

It typically provides:

context;

focus;

problem/question;

thesis;

roadmap where useful.

20. The Introduction Funnel

Think:

BROAD → NARROW → SPECIFIC

Example:

Broad

Digital technologies have transformed many aspects of higher education.

Narrow

Generative AI has introduced a new dimension to this transformation by directly participating in students' reading and writing practices.

Specific

This development raises questions about whether AI strengthens learning or encourages dependence.

Thesis

Generative AI can support student writing when used as a tool for feedback and revision, but uncritical dependence can weaken independent reasoning and authorship.

21. Avoid the Dictionary Introduction

Weak:

“According to the dictionary, artificial intelligence is…”

This often delays the actual argument.

Academic introductions should establish:

why the issue matters and what the writer will argue.

22. Avoid the Empty Introduction

Weak:

Education is very important in our lives. Since ancient times people have been educated. Education plays an important role in society.

Problems:

generic;

predictable;

no intellectual direction;

no thesis.

Better:

Universities increasingly operate in environments shaped by digital technologies, but technological adoption does not automatically produce better learning. The central issue is therefore not whether universities should use technology, but how it should be integrated without weakening students' intellectual independence.

PART VII — BODY PARAGRAPHS

23. Academic Paragraph Architecture

Connect Week 8 directly to Week 10.

A strong academic paragraph can follow:

Point → Evidence → Explanation → Analysis → Link

Point

State the paragraph's argument.

Evidence

Provide source-based support.

Explanation

Clarify the evidence.

Analysis

Explain why it matters to your argument.

Link

Connect to the thesis or next point.

24. Example Academic Paragraph

Generative AI can improve students' writing by providing rapid feedback during drafting. AI systems can identify grammatical problems, suggest alternative wording and help writers recognise unclear passages. These functions can be useful because students receive immediate feedback rather than waiting for instructor comments. However, the educational value of such assistance depends on whether students evaluate the suggestions critically rather than accepting them automatically. AI therefore has greater pedagogical value when it supports revision and reflection rather than replacing the student's own judgement.

Notice the progression:

claim → explanation → implication → qualification → argument.

PART VIII — EVIDENCE

25. What Counts as Evidence?

Depending on the assignment, evidence may include:

• scholarly research;
• statistics;
• official reports;
• policy documents;
• historical records;
• survey findings;
• credible data;
• expert analysis;
• carefully selected examples.

The key question:

Does this evidence genuinely support my claim?

26. Evidence Is Not Automatically an Argument

Weak:

“According to a study, 70% of students use AI.”

Then the writer moves to another point.

Better:

“A study found that 70% of students use AI tools for academic tasks. This suggests that AI has already become embedded in students' learning practices, making questions of responsible use increasingly important.”

The second sentence interprets the evidence.

27. Evidence Sandwich

Teach:

INTRODUCE → EVIDENCE → INTERPRET

Example:

Researchers have increasingly examined the role of feedback in student learning. One study found that timely feedback can help students identify specific weaknesses in their performance. This finding suggests that feedback is most useful when it provides actionable guidance rather than simply assigning a grade.

The source does not replace the writer.

PART IX — SOURCES AND VOICE

28. Source Voice vs Writer Voice

Weak academic paragraph:

Smith says…

Khan says…

Ahmed says…

Jones says…

Ali says…

This is:

source collection

rather than:

argument.

Better:

Several studies suggest that timely feedback improves opportunities for revision. Smith emphasises the role of specific feedback, while Khan highlights students' ability to act on it. Together, these findings suggest that feedback is most effective when it is both timely and actionable.

The writer is now synthesising sources.

29. The Source Is Evidence, Not the Driver

A useful principle:

Sources should support your argument; your argument should not disappear inside your sources.

Students must maintain:

authorial control.

PART X — PARAPHRASING

30. Review from Week 7

Paraphrasing means:

expressing another writer's idea in substantially different language while preserving the original meaning.

But academic paraphrasing has an additional requirement:

citation.

31. Source → Understanding → Paraphrase

Correct process:

Read source

↓

Understand meaning

↓

Identify relevance

↓

Write from understanding

↓

Compare with source

↓

Cite source

Not:

Read sentence

↓

Replace five words

↓

Submit

PART XI — REFERENCING

32. Why Do We Reference?

Referencing performs several functions.

1. Attribution

It acknowledges intellectual ownership.

2. Verification

Readers can locate the source.

3. Credibility

Claims become traceable.

4. Academic conversation

Your writing becomes part of an existing body of knowledge.

5. Intellectual honesty

You distinguish:

your contribution

from:

what you learned from others.

33. What Usually Requires Citation?

Students should generally cite:

• another person's ideas;
• arguments;
• theories;
• research findings;
• statistics;
• distinctive interpretations;
• quotations;
• information not considered common knowledge.

34. Common Knowledge

Some widely known facts may not require citation.

For example:

Pakistan is located in South Asia.

But:

“Pakistan's literacy rate increased by X% between specific years…”

requires an appropriate source.

The exact boundary can depend on discipline and context.

When uncertain:

cite.

PART XII — IN-TEXT CITATION

For this course, introduce a simple APA-style model.

Narrative citation

Ahmed (2025) argues that digital literacy is essential for effective online learning.

Parenthetical citation

Digital literacy is essential for effective online learning (Ahmed, 2025).

Multiple sources

Several studies have identified digital literacy as an important factor in online learning (Ahmed, 2025; Khan, 2024; Smith, 2023).

Students should follow the referencing style specified by their instructor or programme.

PART XIII — QUOTATION

35. When Should Students Quote?

Quotation is appropriate when:

exact wording is important;

the author's formulation is especially significant;

analysing the language itself;

a definition needs precise reproduction.

But students should not construct an essay from quotations.

Weak:

“…” (Smith, 2024). “…” (Khan, 2023). “…” (Ahmed, 2022).

Better:

Smith (2024) argues that effective digital learning depends on more than technological access. This perspective is important because it shifts attention from infrastructure alone to students' ability to use digital resources meaningfully.

PART XIV — PLAGIARISM

36. What Is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the inappropriate presentation of another person's:

• words;
• ideas;
• structure;
• analysis;
• creative work

as one's own.

It may occur intentionally or unintentionally.

37. Common Forms

Direct copying

Copying without quotation and citation.

Patchwriting

Changing a few words while retaining the original structure.

Uncited paraphrase

Restating another person's idea without acknowledging the source.

Misappropriated ideas

Using someone else's original argument as though it were your own.

Self-plagiarism

Reusing one's previous submitted work inappropriately without disclosure where disclosure is required.

38. The Plagiarism Spectrum

Students should understand that plagiarism is not only:

copy + paste.

It can occur through degrees of dependence:

Direct copying

↓

Patchwriting

↓

Close paraphrase

↓

Independent paraphrase with citation

↓

Original synthesis with appropriate sources

The goal is:

independent thinking supported by acknowledged sources.

PART XV — ACADEMIC INTEGRITY

39. Academic Integrity Is Bigger Than Plagiarism

Academic integrity includes:

• honesty;
• accurate attribution;
• responsible research;
• truthful reporting;
• authentic authorship;
• fair collaboration;
• responsible use of technology;
• respect for intellectual property.

A student can avoid plagiarism and still violate academic integrity through:

• fabricated data;
• invented references;
• falsified results;
• unauthorized collaboration;
• submitting another person's work;
• misrepresenting AI-generated work where prohibited.

PART XVI — THE ACADEMIC INTEGRITY TEST

Before submitting an assignment, ask:

Ownership

Which ideas are mine?

Attribution

Which ideas came from sources?

Evidence

Can I verify my important claims?

Citation

Have I acknowledged borrowed ideas?

Accuracy

Does my citation actually support my claim?

Originality

Have I contributed my own analysis?

Transparency

Have I followed the institution's rules regarding AI and collaboration?

PART XVII — WRITING CONCLUSIONS

40. What Does a Conclusion Do?

A conclusion should:

• return to the central question;
• synthesise the major argument;
• demonstrate what follows from the analysis;
• provide a final insight where appropriate.

It should not merely repeat:

“In conclusion…”

41. Synthesis vs Repetition

Weak:

In conclusion, technology is useful. We discussed that technology helps education. Technology is therefore important.

Better:

Digital technology can expand educational opportunities, but its effectiveness depends on how it is integrated into teaching and whether students possess the skills needed to use it critically. The central challenge is therefore not technological adoption itself but the development of learning environments in which technology strengthens rather than substitutes for human judgement.

The conclusion:

synthesises rather than repeats.

PART XVIII — THE ACADEMIC ESSAY BLUEPRINT

A 1,000-word essay

Introduction — 150 words

• context;
• problem;
• thesis;
• direction.

Body 1 — 200 words

Argument 1 + evidence + analysis.

Body 2 — 200 words

Argument 2 + evidence + analysis.

Body 3 — 200 words

Argument 3 + evidence + analysis.

Counterargument — 120 words

alternative position + response.

Conclusion — 130 words

synthesis + implications.

Approximate distribution, not a rigid formula.

PART XIX — PLANNING WORKSHOP

Essay Question

“Should universities integrate generative AI into undergraduate education?”

Step 1 — Topic

Generative AI in higher education.

Step 2 — Question

Should universities integrate it?

Step 3 — Possible thesis

Universities should integrate generative AI selectively because it can support learning and accessibility, but its use should be accompanied by explicit instruction in verification, academic integrity and independent reasoning.

Step 4 — Arguments

Argument 1

AI can provide personalised language and learning support.

Argument 2

AI literacy is becoming an important graduate competence.

Argument 3

Unregulated use can undermine independent learning.

Step 5 — Response

Universities should establish pedagogically purposeful and transparent AI-use policies.

PART XX — SOURCE INTEGRATION EXERCISE

Give students a source statement:

“Feedback is most useful when learners understand how to act on it.”

Ask them to produce:

1. Direct quotation

“Feedback is most useful when learners understand how to act on it” (Author, Year).

2. Paraphrase

Feedback has greater educational value when students can translate it into specific improvements (Author, Year).

3. Summary

Effective feedback should guide improvement (Author, Year).

Then ask:

Which contains the most detail?

Quotation/paraphrase

Which is most compressed?

Summary

PART XXI — ACADEMIC WRITING ERROR CORRECTION

Weak paragraph

AI is very useful for students. According to many researchers AI can help students. AI can make writing easier. Students use AI for assignments. I think AI is good but sometimes it is bad. Universities should do something about it. Therefore AI is important.

Diagnose

Problems:

• vague claims;
• weak evidence;
• personal assertion;
• repetitive;
• no specific thesis;
• no analysis;
• no qualification;
• poor cohesion.

Revised version

Generative AI can provide useful support for university students, particularly during drafting and revision. AI tools can identify grammatical problems, suggest alternative expressions and help students clarify difficult passages. However, these benefits do not mean that students should delegate the intellectual work of analysis and argumentation to automated systems. Because AI-generated output can contain inaccuracies and inappropriate claims, students need the ability to evaluate suggestions critically. Universities should therefore teach responsible AI use as part of academic literacy rather than treating AI simply as either a threat or a shortcut.

Now the paragraph contains:

claim → support → qualification → analysis → implication.

PART XXII — ACADEMIC WRITING REVISION

Students should revise in four passes.

Pass 1 — Argument

Does the essay answer the question?

Pass 2 — Structure

Does each paragraph have a clear purpose?

Pass 3 — Evidence

Are important claims supported?

Pass 4 — Language

Are grammar, vocabulary and punctuation accurate?

This prevents students from spending an hour correcting commas in an argument that does not work.

PART XXIII — THE “THESIS–PARAGRAPH ALIGNMENT” TEST

Write the thesis at the top of the page.

For each paragraph ask:

How does this paragraph help prove, explain or qualify my thesis?

If the answer is:

“It doesn't.”

Then:

remove, revise or relocate the paragraph.

This is one of the most powerful academic-writing habits students can develop.

PART XXIV — AI AND ACADEMIC WRITING

Week 10 should establish a clear principle for the rest of the course:

AI may assist academic writing, but it cannot assume responsibility for the student's argument, evidence, judgement or authorship.

AI can appropriately assist with:

• brainstorming;
• grammar checking;
• vocabulary exploration;
• structural feedback;
• identifying repetition;
• generating questions for revision;
• explaining difficult concepts.

But students must independently verify:

• facts;
• citations;
• quotations;
• references;
• arguments;
• interpretations.

42. The AI Verification Rule

If AI produces:

a citation

the student must ask:

Does this source actually exist?

If AI produces:

a quotation

ask:

Did the author actually say this?

If AI produces:

a factual claim

ask:

What evidence supports it?

If AI rewrites:

a paragraph

ask:

Does it still represent what I mean?

Thus:

AI output is a draft or suggestion—not automatically evidence.

PART XXV — THREE-HOUR TEACHING PLAN

Time	Component	Focus
0–10 min	Retrieval	Week 9: functional writing
10–25 min	Mini-lecture	What makes writing academic?
25–40 min	Lecture	Claims, evidence and reasoning
40–55 min	Practice	Decode an academic question
55–70 min	Lecture	Thesis and essay planning
70–80 min	Practice	Thesis-writing workshop
80–90 min	Break	—
90–105 min	Lecture	Introductions and body paragraphs
105–120 min	Practice	Claim–evidence–reasoning
120–135 min	Lecture	Referencing and paraphrasing
135–150 min	Practice	Citation/paraphrase exercise
150–165 min	Lecture	Plagiarism and academic integrity
165–175 min	Functional Lab	Build a mini essay plan
175–180 min	Exit ticket	Retrieval assessment

PART XXVI — EXIT TICKET

1. What is the difference between a topic and a thesis?

A topic identifies the subject; a thesis presents the writer's focused, defensible position about that subject.

2. What three elements form a basic academic argument?

Claim + evidence + reasoning.

3. Why is evidence alone insufficient?

Because the writer must explain how and why the evidence supports the argument.

4. What is plagiarism?

Presenting another person's words or ideas as one's own without appropriate acknowledgement.

5. What is the most important principle of academic integrity?

Be honest and transparent about the origin of ideas, evidence and work.

PART XXVII — HOMEWORK

Academic Writing Portfolio Task

Write a 700–900-word mini-essay on:

“Should universities regulate the use of generative AI in undergraduate education?”

Your submission must contain:

1. Question analysis

Identify:

• topic;
• command word;
• scope;
• key concepts.

2. Thesis

One clear, defensible thesis.

3. Essay plan

• Introduction
• Argument 1
• Argument 2
• Argument 3
• Counterargument
• Conclusion

4. Evidence plan

Identify at least three credible sources and explain what each source will contribute.

5. Essay

Write the complete essay.

6. Academic integrity statement

Add a short statement explaining:

what sources you used;

how you paraphrased them;

what AI tools, if any, you used;

how you verified AI-assisted material.

PART XXVIII — WEEK 10 SKILLS CHECKLIST

Students should now be able to:

☐ distinguish academic writing from everyday and professional writing;

☐ decode an assignment question;

☐ identify command words;

☐ narrow a broad topic;

☐ formulate a research question;

☐ develop a thesis;

☐ plan an academic essay;

☐ write an effective introduction;

☐ develop evidence-based body paragraphs;

☐ distinguish claims from evidence;

☐ explain evidence;

☐ integrate sources into their own argument;

☐ write a synthesis-based conclusion;

☐ paraphrase responsibly;

☐ summarise sources;

☐ use citations appropriately;

☐ recognise plagiarism;

☐ understand academic integrity;

☐ revise writing at the level of argument, structure, evidence and language;

☐ use AI responsibly without surrendering intellectual responsibility.

WEEK 10 — CORE TAKEAWAYS

1. Academic writing is not complicated English; it is disciplined thinking expressed clearly.
2. A strong academic text answers a question through a defensible argument supported by relevant evidence.
3. A thesis is not merely a topic; it is the central position the writer will establish, explain or defend.
4. Every major claim should be supported by appropriate evidence and followed by reasoning that explains its significance.
5. Sources should strengthen the writer's argument, not replace it.
6. Paraphrasing requires genuine re-expression of meaning and appropriate attribution.
7. Changing a few words is not legitimate paraphrasing.
8. Plagiarism includes more than copy-and-paste; it can also involve close paraphrasing and unattributed ideas.
9. Academic integrity requires honesty about sources, evidence, authorship, collaboration and technology.
10. A strong conclusion synthesises the argument and shows what the analysis means; it does not merely repeat the introduction.

WEEK 10 COURSEPACK PRINCIPLE

Academic writing is the architecture of a defensible idea: a question gives it direction, a thesis gives it a position, evidence gives it credibility, reasoning gives it meaning, and integrity gives it legitimacy.

The course has now reached an important intellectual progression:

WEEK 7 — Understand and compress

↓

WEEK 8 — Organise and connect

↓

WEEK 9 — Communicate for practical purposes

↓

WEEK 10 — Argue with evidence and integrity

Or:

READ → UNDERSTAND → SELECT → ORGANISE → ARGUE → EVIDENCE → ATTRIBUTE

Riaz Laghari, Visiting Lecturer in English,  Area Study Center, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad